生态有机农业：无转基因可持续发展的世界（旧文）

[按语： 中国古人形容欺骗人的成语有一大堆的: 沽名钓誉 、故弄玄虚、粉饰太平、佛口蛇心、欺下瞒上、掩耳盗铃、瞒天过海，用这些词语来形容“转基因推手”，都远远不够。他们说：“反对转基因的人，都是人文学者，他们不懂科学啊！”真是这样吗？
       感谢恩道尔，他写了一本揭露转基因内幕的书《粮食危机》，这本书为我们提供了大量的转基因毒害的事实和科学研究结果，更重要的是他披露了有哪些研究转基因的科学家在揭露“转基因”，最重要的科学家有英国的普兹泰（Arpad Pusztai ）博士、华裔科学家侯美婉（Mae-Wan Ho）博士，还有非常重要的“第三世界网络（Third World Network）”组织、“独立科研小组（Independent Science Panel ）”等等，今年2月刚刚被中国邀请的美国人史密斯就是重量级的专家，那么侯美婉这个科班出身的研究转基因的科学家称得上是生物科学领域的爱因斯坦（最早反对原子科学应用于生产核武器的科学家之一），她早在2000年就写了一本《Genetic engineering: dream or nightmare? 基因工程，美梦还是噩梦 ？ 》的书，湖南科学技术出版社2001年1月1日出版了中文版，书中对转基因科学应用于战争表达了深深的忧郁，给人类发出严重的警告。如果我们说1936年日本侵略中国时，因为有高士其这样的细菌科学家的科普（见反细菌战巨著《抗战与防疫》），使中华民族免于被731部队的细菌武器所灭绝，那么21世纪有侯美婉这样的科学家和我们一起奋斗，胜利一定属于中国人民！
        下面这篇报告是侯美婉（Mae-Wan Ho）博士带头，普兹泰博士参与的独立科研小组（Independent Science Panel ）的研究转基因的科学报告之一，2003年出版，这篇报告汇集了该领域的众多研究成果，特别是转基因对人类对生物界的危害方面，有非常重要的披露。

 英文版来自网络，中文翻译来自天涯论坛的网友“忽然惊涛”]

The Case For

A GM-Free Sustainable World

无转基因可持续发展的世界

Independent Science Panel

独立科研小组

The Case For

A GM-Free Sustainable World

Independent Science Panel

Drafted by
起草

Mae-Wan Ho and Lim Li Ching
何美芸(又译侯美婉)、林丽珍
with contributions from
小组其他参与人员包括:
Joe Cummins, Malcolm Hooper, Miguel Altieri,
Peter Rosset, Arpad Pusztai(阿帕德·普兹泰), Stanley Ewen,
Michel Pimbert, Peter Saunders, Edward Goldsmith,
David Quist, Eva Novotny, Vyvyan Howard, Brian John

and others on the Panel

15 June 2003
London

The Case For
A GM-Free Sustainable World

Published by
出版:
Institute of Science in Society
社会中的科学研究所
PO Box 32097
London NW1 0XR, UK
&
Third World Network
第三世界网络
121-S Jalan Utama
10450 Penang, Malaysia

版权所有
. Institute of Science in Society & Third World Network 2003

Printed by Jutaprint
2 Solok Sungei Pinang 3, Sg. Pinang
11600 Penang, Malaysia

ISBN: 0-9544923-1-5 (ISIS)
ISBN: 983-9747-99-1 (TWN)

Preface
前言

Members of the Independent Science Panel (ISP) on GM have had the
opportunity to review extensive scientific and other evidence on genetic
engineering over the past decades. Many are among the more than
600 scientists from 72 countries who have signed an ‘Open Letter from
World Scientists to All Governments’ [1], initiated in 1999, which called
for a moratorium on the environmental release of genetically modified
organisms (GMOs), a ban on patents on living processes, organisms,
seeds, cell lines and genes, and a comprehensive public enquiry into
the future of agriculture and food security.
  转基因独立科研小组(ISP)的成员有幸能有机会回顾过去几十年转基因工程的广泛科学证据及其它证据。他们中大多数都是签署了1999年发起之“世界科学家致各国政府的公开信”的600名来自72个国家的科学家成员之一,他们在信中呼吁暂停转基因生物(GMO)的环境释放,禁止活体加工、生物体、种子、细胞株及细胞基因的专利,并要求在农业和粮食安全未来的议题上要向公众做全面询问。 

Scientific and other developments since 1999 have confirmed our
concerns over the safety of genetic engineering, genetically modified
(GM) crops and food security. At the same time, the successes and
benefits of the different forms of sustainable agriculture are undeniable.
The evidence, now assembled, makes a strong case for a worldwide
ban on all environmental release of GM crops to make way for a comprehensive
shift to agroecology, sustainable agriculture and organic
farming.
  1999年以后的科学及其它发展使我们对基因工程和转基因农作物的安全及粮食安全的担忧得到确认。同时,各种形式可持续农业的成功和好处应该得到重视。目前收集的证据强烈要求世界范围内禁止所有转基因农作物释放到环境,为全面转移到生态农业、可持续农业和有机农业铺平道路。

The evidence on why GM crops are not a viable option for a
sustainable future is presented in Parts 1 and 2, while Part 3 presents
evidence on the successes and benefits of sustainable agricultural
practices.
第1和第2部分将列举证据说明为什么转基因农作物不是未来可持续发展的选择,而第3部分将指出可持续农业的成功之处与好处。

Note
注释

This Report is a summary of a vast amount of literature. We have
included as much of the primary sources as possible, but many of the
papers cited in the list of references are themselves extensive reviews
of scientific and other literature, submitted to various national and international
bodies that have called for evidence.
本报告是各种文献著作的总结。我们尽可能包括了主要的资源,但是参考书目中引用的很多论文本身就是对提交给收集证据之各国内、国际机构的科学及其它文献的广泛评审。

In producing the ISP Report, ISP members are responsible for those
areas where they have specific competence, while giving overall
endorsement to the report as a whole. Each ISP member also
recognises the expertise and authority of other ISP members in those
areas where they themselves do not have specific competence.
撰写此份ISP报告时,ISP成员有责任对其能胜任的领域负责,同时对报告整体表示认同。每个IPS成员对其他ISP成员在前者不能胜任之领域的鉴定与权威也表示认同。 

Contents
目录

Preface i
前言
Executive Summary v
概述
Part 1: No Future for GM crops 1
 第一部分:转基因农作物没有未来

1 Why Not GM Crops? 3
1.为什么不要转基因农作物?

2 Escalating Problems on the Farm 7
2.农业问题升级

Part 2: GM Crops Not Safe 13
第二部分:转基因农作物不安全

3 Science & Precaution 15
   3.科学与预防原则
4 Safety Tests on GM Foods 20
4.转基因食品的安全测试
5 Transgene Hazards 23
5.转基因危害
6 Terminator Crops Spread Male Sterility 25
   6.终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延

7 Herbicide Hazards 27
7.除草剂危害

8 Horizontal Gene Transfer 31
8.基因横向转移

9 The CaMV 35S Promoter 33
9.CaMV 35S 启动子

10 Transgenic DNA More Likely to Spread 37
10.转基因DNA更容易传播

11 Horizontal Transfer of Transgenic DNA 40
11.转基因DNA的横向转移.

12 Hazards of Horizontal Gene Transfer 46
12.基因横向转移的危害

13 Conclusion to Parts 1 & 2 48
13.第一、二部分结论

Part 3: The Manifold Benefits of Sustainable Agriculture 51
第三部分:可持续农业的多种好处.

14 Why Sustainable Agriculture? 53
14.为什么要推行可持续农业？

15 Higher or Comparable Productivity & Yields 56
15.更高或相当的生产力和产量

16 Better Soils 62
16.更肥沃的土壤

17 Cleaner Environment 66
17.更清洁的环境

18 Reduced Pesticides & No Increase in Pests 68
18.杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加

19 Supporting Biodiversity & Using Diversity 71
19.支持生物多样性,利用多样性

20 Environmental & Economic Sustainability 76
20.环境与经济的可持续性

21 Ameliorating Climate Change 79
21.改善气候变化

22 Efficient & Profitable Production 82
22.有效、有盈利的生产

23 Improved Food Security & Benefits to Local Communities  85
23.粮食安全改善、本地社区受益

24 Organics for Health 89
24.有机食物有益健康

25 Conclusion to Part 3 92
25.第三部分总结

References 93
    参考文献

Statement of the Independent Science Panel 110
独立科研小组声明

Independent Science Panel on GM: List of Members 113
   转基因独立科研小组成员名单

iv

Executive Summary
概述

Why GM Free?
为什么不要转基因？
 

1. GM crops failed to deliver promised benefits
1. 转基因农作物未能带来许诺的好处

The consistent finding from independent research and on-farm surveys
since 1999 is that genetically modified (GM) crops have failed to deliver
the promised benefits of significantly increasing yields or reducing
herbicide and pesticide use. GM crops have cost the United States
(US) an estimated $12 billion in farm subsidies, lost sales and product
recalls due to transgenic contamination. Massive failures in insect-
resistant Bt cotton of up to 100% were reported in India.
  自1999年以来不断进行的独立研究和现场农业调查发现,转基因(GM)农作物未能带来许诺的好处,没有使产量大幅提高,也没有减少除草剂和杀虫剂的使用。转基因农作物使美国在农业补贴方面花费了约120亿美元,并因转基因污染使销售减少,产品被召回。据报导,印度Bt抗虫棉大量失败,高达100%。

Biotech corporations have suffered rapid decline since 2000, and
investment advisors forecast no future for the agricultural sector.
Meanwhile, worldwide resistance to GM has reached a climax when
Zambia in 2002 refused GM maize (corn) in food aid despite the threat
of famine.
  自2000年以来生物技术公司迅速下滑,投资顾问预测转基因农业没有未来。同时,2002年赞比亚虽然面临饥荒的威胁却拒绝接受食品援助中的转基因玉米,使世界抵抗转基因的运动达到高潮。 

2. GM crops posing escalating problems on the farm
2. 转基因农作物使农业问题升级

The instability of transgenic lines has plagued the industry from the
beginning, and this may be responsible for a string of major crop failures.
A review in 1994 stated, “While there are some examples of
plants which show stable expression of a transgene these may prove
to be the exceptions to the rule. In an informal survey of over 30 companies
involved in the commercialisation of transgenic crop
plants….almost all of the respondents indicated that they had observed
some level of transgene inaction. Many respondents indicated that
most cases of transgene inactivation never reach the literature.”
  转基因品系的不稳定从一开始就在折磨该产品,这也可能是一系列主要农作物失败的原因。1994年的一项回顾陈述,“虽然一些植物的转基因表达显示稳定,但这可能会被证明是例外情况。在对30家从事转基因农作物商业的公司进行的一项非正式调查中发现……几乎所有的回答者都指出,他们曾观察到了某种程度上的转入的基因失活。很多回答者表示,大多数转基因失活从来没有在书面上承认。”

Triple herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape (canola) volunteers that
have combined transgenic and non-transgenic traits are now widespread
in Canada. Similar multiple herbicide-tolerant volunteers and
weeds have emerged in the US. In the US, glyphosate-tolerant weeds
are plaguing GM cotton and soya fields, and atrazine, one of the most
toxic herbicides, has had to be used with glufosinate-tolerant GM
maize.
  结合了转基因和非转基因特点的三价耐除草剂油菜,自生杂草目前在加拿大分布十分广泛。类似的多价耐除草剂自生植物和种子开始在美国出现。在美国,耐草甘膦的杂草正折磨域转基因棉花和大豆种植地,而最具毒性的除草剂之一-莠去津则必须与耐草胺膦的转基因玉米一同使用。

Bt biopesticide traits are simultaneously threatening to create
superweeds and Bt-resistant pests.
   Bt生物杀虫剂的特点同时也会促使超级杂草和抗Bt害虫的产生。

3. Extensive transgenic contamination unavoidable
  3. 广泛的转基因污染无法避免

Extensive transgenic contamination has occurred in maize landraces
growing in remote regions in Mexico despite an official moratorium that
has been in place since 1998. High levels of contamination have since
been found in Canada. In a test of 33 samples of certified canola
(oilseed rape) seed stocks, 32 were found contaminated.
  尽管自1998年以来官方已经暂禁种植,但墨西哥偏远地区种植的玉米地方品种还是广泛被转基因污染。在加拿大也曾经发现了高度的污染。在对33个经批准的油菜库存进行的一项测试发现,32个受到了污染。

New research shows that transgenic pollen, wind-blown and
deposited elsewhere, or fallen directly to the ground, is a major source
of transgenic contamination. Contamination is generally acknowledged
to be unavoidable, hence there can be no co-existence of transgenic
and non-transgenic crops.
  最新研究显示,转基因花粉被风传到其他地方并沉积,或者直接落到地面上是转基因污染的一个重大源泉。通常认为污染是不可避免的,因此,转基因农作物和非转基因农作物不可共存。

4. GM crops not safe
4. 转基因农作物不安全

Contrary to the claims of proponents, GM crops have not been proven
safe. The regulatory framework was fatally flawed from the start. It was
based on an anti-precautionary approach designed to expedite product
approval at the expense of safety considerations.
  与倡议者声称的相反,转基因农作物并未被证明安全。法律框架从一开始就有致命缺陷。这个框架是以违反预防原则为基础,其初衷是以安全考虑为代价来加速产品的批准。 

The principle of ‘substantial equivalence’, on which risk assessment
is based, is intended to be vague and ill-defined, thereby giving
companies complete licence in claiming transgenic products ‘substantially
equivalent’ to non-transgenic products, and hence ‘safe’.
  构成风险评估基础的“实质等同”原则有意显得模糊、定义松散,因此让公司可以完成执照申请,声称转基因产品与非转基因产品“实质等同”,因此“安全”。

5. GM food raises serious safety concerns
  5. 转基因食品带来严重的安全隐患

There have been very few credible studies on GM food safety.
Nevertheless, the available findings already give cause for concern. In
the still only systematic investigation on GM food ever carried out in the
world, ‘growth factor-like’ effects were found in the stomach and small
intestine of young rats that were not fully accounted for by the trans-
gene product, and were hence attributable to the transgenic process or
the transgenic construct, and may hence be general to all GM food.
  转基因食品的安全性几乎没有可信的研究。不管怎样,现有的发现已经给出了担心的理由。世界范围内对转基因食品进行的系统性调查发现,幼鼠的胃和小肠中有“生长因子”效应,这可能不完全是转基因产品造成的,可能可以归于转基因制程或转基因构造,对所有转基因食品来说可能都很普遍。

There have been at least two other, more limited, studies that also
raised serious safety concerns.
  至少还有两项专门研究也指出了严重的安全隐患。

6. Dangerous gene products are incorporated into crops
    6. 危险的基因产物正被加入农作物中 

Bt proteins, incorporated into 25% of all transgenic crops worldwide,
have been found harmful to a range of non-target insects. Some of
them are also potent immunogens and allergens. A team of scientists
has cautioned against releasing Bt crops for human use.
  在世界25%转基因农作物中都已加入的Bt蛋白质发现对很多非耙标性昆虫有害。一些还是有力的免疫原和过敏原。一科学家团体曾对释放Bt的农作物供人类使用提出警告。

Food crops are increasingly used to produce pharmaceuticals and
drugs, including cytokines known to suppress the immune system,
induce sickness and central nervous system toxicity; interferon alpha,
reported to cause dementia, neurotoxicity and mood and cognitive side
effects; vaccines; and viral sequences such as the 'spike' protein gene
of the pig coronavirus, in the same family as the SARS virus linked to
the current epidemic. The glycoprotein gene gp120 of the AIDS virus
HIV-1, incorporated into GM maize as a ‘cheap, edible oral vaccine’,
serves as yet another biological time-bomb, as it can interfere with the
immune system and recombine with viruses and bacteria to generate
new and unpredictable pathogens.
  食用作物正不断用来生产药物,包括可抑制免疫系统从而引发疾病和中枢神经系统中毒的细胞因数;据称可以导致痴呆、神经中毒、情绪和感知副作用的Alpha干扰素;疫苗;病毒序列,如与当前流感相关之SARS病毒同一类猪冠状病毒中的“尖钉”蛋白质基因。AIDS病毒 HIV-1的糖蛋白基因gp120也以“廉价、可食用的口服疫苗”为名加入转基因玉米中,成为另一个生物定时炸弹,该因子可以干扰免疫系统,并与病毒和细菌重组,产生不可预知的新病原体。

7. Terminator crops spread male sterility
  7. 终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延

Crops engineered with ‘suicide’ genes for male sterility have been promoted
as a means of ‘containing’, i.e., preventing, the spread of trans-
genes. In reality, the hybrid crops sold to farmers spread both male
sterile suicide genes as well herbicide tolerance genes via pollen.
  用导致雄性不育之“自杀式”基因改造的农作物被作为“防止”转基因传播的方法来推崇。事实上,向农户出售的杂交农作物通过花粉既传播了雄性不育自杀式基因,也传播了耐除草剂基因。

8. Broad-spectrum herbicides highly toxic to humans and other species
  8. 广谱除草剂对人类和其他物种高度有害

Glufosinate ammonium and glyphosate are used with the herbicide-tolerant
transgenic crops that currently account for 75% of all transgenic
crops worldwide. Both are systemic metabolic poisons expected to
have a wide range of harmful effects, and these have been confirmed.
  草胺膦和草甘膦与耐除草剂的转基因农作物一同使用,这在当前世界转基因农作物中占了75%。两者都是系统性代谢毒药,有一系列的有害效果,且已经得到证实。

Glufosinate ammonium is linked to neurological, respiratory, gastrointestinal
and haematological toxicities, and birth defects in humans
and mammals. It is toxic to butterflies and a number of beneficial
insects, also to the larvae of clams and oysters, Daphnia and some
freshwater fish, especially the rainbow trout. It inhibits beneficial soil
bacteria and fungi, especially those that fix nitrogen.
  草胺膦与人类和哺乳动物的神经、呼吸、胃肠、血液毒性及出生缺陷有关联。它对蝴蝶及一系列益虫有毒,对蛤和牡蛎的幼虫水蚤和一些淡水鱼,尤其是虹鳟鱼也有毒。还会抑制土地中的有益细菌和真菌,尤其是固氮的细菌和真菌。

Glyphosate is the most frequent cause of complaints and poisoning
in the UK. Disturbances of many body functions have been reported
after exposures at normal use levels. Glyphosate exposure nearly
doubled the risk of late spontaneous abortion, and children born to
users of glyphosate had elevated neurobehavioral defects. Glyphosate
caused retarded development of the foetal skeleton in laboratory rats.
Glyphosate inhibits the synthesis of steroids, and is genotoxic in mammals,
fish and frogs. Field dose exposure of earthworms caused at
least 50 percent mortality and significant intestinal damage among
surviving worms. Roundup caused cell division dysfunction that may be
linked to human cancers.
  草甘膦是英国各种投诉和中毒最频繁的原因。据说接触正常使用水平也可能使很多身体功能受到干扰。接触草甘膦几乎使晚期自发性流产机率翻倍,草甘膦使用者的后代神经行为缺陷机率也增高。在实验室老鼠身上发现草甘膦导致胎儿骨骼发育迟缓。草甘膦还会抑制类固醇合成,对哺乳动物、鱼类和青蛙也有毒。蚯蚓接触土地中的药剂后至少50%会死亡,而存活的也很大程度上存在肠损伤。“农达”除草剂导致细胞功能障碍,这可能与人类癌症有关。

The known effects of both glufosinate and glyphosate are sufficiently
serious for all further uses of the herbicides to be halted.
    草胺膦和草甘膦已知的效果已经足够说服我们停止进一步使用除草剂。

9. Genetic engineering creates super-viruses
  9. 基因工程使超级病毒诞生 
 
By far the most insidious dangers of genetic engineering are inherent
to the process itself, which greatly enhances the scope and probability
of horizontal gene transfer and recombination, the main route to creating
viruses and bacteria that cause disease epidemics. This was highlighted,
in 2001, by the 'accidental' creation of a killer mouse virus in the
course of an apparently innocent genetic engineering experiment.
  到目前为止,基因工程最大的危险与其本身的制程有关,这很大程度上扩大了基因横向转移和重组(产生导致流行疾病病毒和细菌的主要路线)的范围和概率。2001年时,此种情况十分突出,一次对明显无害之基因的改造试验却“偶然”创造出老鼠杀手病毒。

Newer techniques, such as DNA shuffling, are allowing geneticists
to create in a matter of minutes in the laboratory millions of recombinant
viruses that have never existed in billions of years of evolution.
 最新的技术,如DNA 改组(DNA Shuffling)技术使遗传学家可以在实验室里几分钟内就创造出数百万在上亿年进化中都未曾存在的重组病毒。

Disease-causing viruses and bacteria and their genetic material
are the predominant materials and tools for genetic engineering, as
much as for the intentional creation of bio-weapons.
  导致疾病的病毒和细菌及其基因物质是基因工程的主要材料和工具,差不多可故意用于制造生物武器。

10. Transgenic DNA in food taken up by bacteria in human gut
  10. 食品中的转基因DNA被人的消化道内的细菌吸收

There is already experimental evidence that transgenic DNA from
plants has been taken up by bacteria in the soil and in the gut of human
volunteers. Antibiotic resistance marker genes can spread from transgenic
food to pathogenic bacteria, making infections very difficult to
treat.
  已有实验证明,植物中的转基因DNA被土壤和人的消化道中的细菌吸收。抵抗抗生素特质(antibiotic resistance)的标志基因(marker gene)可以从转基因食品传播到致病细菌,使感染更加难以治疗。

11. Transgenic DNA and cancer
  11. 转基因DNA与癌症

Transgenic DNA is known to survive digestion in the gut and to jump
into the genome of mammalian cells, raising the possibility for triggering
cancer.
  众所周知,转基因DNA能在内脏消化过程中生存,并转入哺乳动物细胞的基因组中,增加了引发癌症的可能性。

The possibility cannot be excluded that feeding GM products such
as maize to animals also carries risks, not just for the animals but also
for human beings consuming the animal products.
  用转基因产品,如玉米饲养动物也不排除有风险,不仅仅是对动物,而且是对食用动物产品的人都有风险。 

12. CaMV 35S promoter increases horizontal gene transfer
  12. CaMV 35S启动子使基因横向转移增强

Evidence suggests that transgenic constructs with the CaMV 35S promoter
might be especially unstable and prone to horizontal gene transfer
and recombination, with all the attendant hazards: gene mutations
due to random insertion, cancer, reactivation of dormant viruses and
generation of new viruses. This promoter is present in most GM crops
being grown commercially today.
  有证据显示,带CaMV 35S启动子的转基因构造可能尤其不稳定,易于使基因水平转移和重组,出现所有伴随危害:因随意插入而导致基因变异,癌症、休眠病毒恢复活动及新病毒产生等。这种启动子在当今商业种植的大多数转基因农作物中都存在。

13. A history of misrepresentation and suppression of scientific evidence

  13. 科学证据被歪曲和隐瞒的历程 

There has been a history of misrepresentation and suppression of scientific
evidence, especially on horizontal gene transfer. Key experiments
failed to be performed, or were performed badly and then misrepresented.
Many experiments were not followed up, including investigations
on whether the CaMV 35S promoter is responsible for the
‘growth factor-like’ effects observed in young rats fed GM potatoes.
  科学证据,尤其是关于基因横向转移的证据曾经历了被歪曲和隐瞒的历程。关键的实验未被进行,或者进行得很糟糕,于是被歪曲。很多实验并没有进行跟踪,包括CaMV 35S启动子是否应对用转基因马铃薯饲养的幼鼠中观察到的‘生长因子’效果负责进行调查。

In conclusion, GM crops have failed to deliver the promised
benefits and are posing escalating problems on the farm.
Transgenic contamination is now widely acknowledged to be
unavoidable, and hence there can be no co-existence of GM and
non-GM agriculture. Most important of all, GM crops have not
been proven safe. On the contrary, sufficient evidence has
emerged to raise serious safety concerns, that if ignored could
result in irreversible damage to health and the environment. GM
crops should be firmly rejected now.
  总的来说,转基因农作物未能带来许诺的好处,使农业问题升级。转基因污染现被广泛认为不可避免,因此,转基因农业和非转基因农业不可共存。最重要的是,转基因农作物并未被证明安全。相反,有足够的证据显示对其安全隐患表示担心,如果忽视,将导致对健康和环境无法改变的损害。现在,应坚决拒绝转基因农作物。

Why Sustainable Agriculture?
为什么要推行可持续农业？

1. Higher productivity and yields, especially in the Third World
  1. 生产力和产量更高,尤其是在第三世界

Some 8.98 million farmers have adopted sustainable agriculture practices
on 28.92 million hectares in Asia, Latin America and Africa.
Reliable data from 89 projects show higher productivity and yields: 50100%
increase in yield for rainfed crops, and 5-10% for irrigated crops.
Top successes include Burkina Faso, which turned a cereal deficit of
644 kg per year to an annual surplus of 153 kg; Ethiopia, where 12 500
households enjoyed 60% increase in crop yields; and Honduras and
Guatemala, where 45 000 families increased yields from 400-600 kg/ha
to 2 000-2 500 kg/ha.
  亚洲、拉美和非洲有898万农民在2892万公顷的土地上采用了可持续农业的做法。89个项目的可靠数据显示生产力和产量都更高:旱作物的产量增加了50-100%,灌溉作物增加了5-10%。最成功的例子包括:布基纳法索,该国使每年644公斤谷类作物赤字转变为每年153公斤的盈余;在埃塞俄比亚,12500家农户的作物产量增加了60%;而在洪都拉斯和危地马拉,45000户家庭的产量从400-600公斤/公顷增加到2000-2500公斤/公顷。

Long-term studies in industrialised countries show yields for
organic comparable to conventional agriculture, and sometimes higher.
  对工业国家的长期研究显示,有机农业产量与常规农业相当,有时更高一些。

2. Better soils
  2. 更肥沃的土壤

Sustainable agricultural practices tend to reduce soil erosion, as well as
improve soil physical structure and water-holding capacity, which are
crucial in averting crop failures during periods of drought.
      可持续农业做法可减少土壤侵蚀,并改善土壤的物理结构和涵水能力,这对干旱时期防止农作物干死十分重要。 
 
 
 
 
Soil fertility is maintained or increased by various sustainable agriculture
practices. Studies show that soil organic matter and nitrogen
levels are higher in organic than in conventional fields.
  土壤的肥沃可通过各种可持续农业做法得到维持并增强。研究显示,土壤有机物质和含氮水平,在有机土地中比常规土地高一些。

Biological activity has also been found to be higher in organic
soils. There are more earthworms, arthropods, mycorrhizal and other
fungi, and micro-organisms, all of which are beneficial for nutrient recycling
and suppression of disease.
  还发现有机土壤中的生物活动也更活跃。这些土壤中有更多的蚯蚓、节肢动物、根菌及其它真菌及微生物,所有这些对营养循环和压制疾病都有利。

3. Cleaner environment
  3. 更清洁的环境 
 
There is little or no polluting chemical-input with sustainable agriculture.
Moreover, research suggests that less nitrate and phosphorus are
leached to groundwater from organic soils.
  可持续农业使用的污染性化学品很少或几乎没有。此外,研究显示,有机土壤过滤到地下水中的硝酸盐和磷化物更少。

Better water infiltration rates are found in organic systems.
Therefore, they are less prone to erosion and less likely to contribute to
water pollution from surface runoff.
  有机系统中,水渗透率也更好。因此,侵蚀的倾向也更小,表面携带的物质对水体的污染也较少。

4. Reduced pesticides and no increase in pests
 4. 杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加 
   
Organic farming prohibits routine pesticide application. Integrated pest
management has cut the number of pesticide sprays in Vietnam from 3.4 to
 one per season, in Sri Lanka from 2.9 to 0.5 per season, and in
Indonesia from 2.9 to 1.1 per season.
  有机耕作禁止日常使用杀虫剂。在越南,集成虫害管理使杀虫剂喷剂的使用次数从每季3.4降至1,斯里兰卡每季从2.9降至0.5,而印尼每季则从2.9降至1.1。

Research showed no increase in crop losses due to pest damage,
despite the withdrawal of synthetic insecticides in Californian tomato
production.
  研究显示,加州西红柿生产尽管撤销了合成杀虫剂,但作物因害虫损害而造成的损失并未增加。

Pest control is achievable without pesticides, reversing crop losses,
as for example, by using ‘trap crops’ to attract stem borer, a major
pest in East Africa. Other benefits of avoiding pesticides arise from utilising
the complex inter-relationships between species in an ecosystem.
  在不使用杀虫剂的情况下仍使害虫得到控制,比如,用“诱虫作物”来吸引东亚的一种主要害虫-三化螟虫,从而使作物损失减少。使用生态系统中各种生物之间复杂的内部关系也可避免使用杀虫剂,带来其他一些好处。

5. Supporting biodiversity and using diversity
5. 支持生物多样性,利用多样性  
 
Sustainable agriculture promotes agricultural biodiversity, which is crucial
for food security and rural livelihoods. Organic farming can also
support much greater biodiversity, benefiting species that have significantly
declined.
  可持续农业促进了农业的生物多样性,这对粮食安全和农村生计来说至关重要。有机耕作还可支持更高的生物多样性,使急剧减少的种类受益。
Biodiverse systems are more productive than monocultures.
Integrated farming systems in Cuba are 1.45 to 2.82 times more productive
than monocultures. Thousands of Chinese rice farmers have
doubled yields and nearly eliminated the most devastating disease simply
by mixed planting of two varieties.
  生物多样化的系统比单一栽培系统的生产力高。古巴的集成耕作系统比单一栽培系统的产量高1.45-2.82倍。中国成千上万的稻米农民仅仅通过将两种作物套种就使产量翻倍,并消除了最具毁灭性的疾病。

Soil biodiversity is enhanced by organic practices, bringing beneficial
effects such as recovery and rehabilitation of degraded soils,
improved soil structure and water infiltration.
  通过有机做法,土地的生物多样也提高,带来很多好处,如退化土地得到恢复与康复、土地结构、水渗透状况改善等。

6. Environmentally and economically sustainable
  6. 环境和经济的可持续性 

Research on apple production systems ranked the organic system first
in environmental and economic sustainability, the integrated system
second and the conventional system last. Organic apples were most
profitable due to price premiums, quicker investment return and fast
recovery of costs.
  对苹果生产系统的研究发现,有机系统在环境和经济可持续性中排列第一,集成系统排第二,而常规系统排第三。鉴于溢价、投资回报快及成本快速回笼等因素,有机苹果是最赚钱的。

A Europe-wide study showed that organic farming performs better
than conventional farming in the majority of environmental indicators. A
review by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) concluded that well-managed organic agriculture leads to more
favourable conditions at all environmental levels.
  欧洲的一项广泛研究显示,有机耕作的大多数环保指标都比常规耕作好。联合国粮农组织(FAO)的一份评论总结说,管理良好的有机农业使所有环保指标达到更有利的条件。 

7. Ameliorating climate change by reducing direct and indirect energy use
 7. 减少直接和间接能量使用从而改善气候变化 

Organic agriculture uses energy much more efficiently and greatly
reduces carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions compared with conventional
agriculture, both with respect to direct energy consumption in fuel and
oil and indirect consumption in synthetic fertilisers and pesticides.
  与常规农业相比,有机农业使用的能量更有效,大幅减少了二氧化碳的释放,不仅仅是直接燃油能量消耗减少,而且合成肥料和杀虫剂的间接能量消耗也减少。
Sustainable agriculture restores soil organic matter content,
increasing carbon sequestration below ground, thereby recovering an
important carbon sink. Organic systems have shown significant ability
to absorb and retain carbon, raising the possibility that sustainable agriculture
practices can help reduce the impact of global warming.
  可持续农业恢复了土地的有机物含量,增加了地下的碳封存,因此使重要的碳阱得到恢复。有机系统已经显示了吸收和保持碳的强烈能力,提高了可持续农业帮助减少全球升温影响的可能性。

Organic agriculture is likely to emit less nitrous oxide (N2O),
another important greenhouse gas and also a cause of stratospheric
ozone depletion.
  有机农业可能排出较少的一氧化氮。这是另一种重要的温室气体,也是平流层臭氧耗竭的原因之一。

8. Efficient and profitable production
  8. 有效、有利的生产 
 
Any yield reduction in organic agriculture is more than offset by ecological
and efficiency gains. Research has shown that the organic
approach can be commercially viable in the long-term, producing more food
per unit of energy or resources.

  有机农业任何产量的减少常常被生态和有效性方面的收获而抵消。研究显示,有机方法长期来说在商业上经得住考验,每个单位能量和资源可以生产更多的食品。

Data show that smaller farms produce far more per unit area than
the larger farms characteristic of conventional farming. Though the
yield per unit area of one crop may be lower on a small farm than on a
large monoculture, the total output per unit area, often composed of
over a dozen crops and various animal products, can be far higher.
  数据显示,较小的农户每个单位区域的产量比常规耕作的大农户的产量高出很多。虽然小农户一种作物每个单位区域的产量可能比单一栽培大农户的产量低一些,但是每个单位的总体产量常常由12种以上的作物和各种动物产品组成,因此总体产量会更高。

Production costs for organic farming are often lower than for conventional
farming, bringing equivalent or higher net returns even without
organic price premiums. When price premiums are factored in,
organic systems are almost always more profitable.
  有机耕作的生产成本常常比常规耕作低,即使有机价格没有产生溢价,经济回报也相当或更高。如果价格产生溢价,有机系统几乎总是能更赚钱。

9. Improved food security and benefits to local communities
  9. 粮食安全改善,本地社区受益 
 
A review of sustainable agriculture projects in developing countries
showed that average food production per household increased by 1.71
tonnes per year (up 73%) for 4.42 million farmers on 3.58 million
hectares, bringing food security and health benefits.
  对发展中国家可持续农业发展的回顾显示,442万农民种植的358万公顷土地上每户家庭平均粮食产量每年增加了1.71吨(约73%),带来了粮食安全和健康利益。 
 
Increasing agricultural productivity has been shown to also
increase food supplies and raise incomes, thereby reducing poverty,
increasing access to food, reducing malnutrition and improving health
and livelihoods.
  不断增长的农业生产力还显示可以增加粮食供应,提高收入,从而减少贫困,增加食物的供应,减少营养不良,改善健康和生活。

Sustainable agricultural approaches draw extensively on traditional
and indigenous knowledge, and place emphasis on the farmers'
experience and innovation. This thereby utilises appropriate, low-cost
and readily available local resources as well as improves farmers' status
and autonomy, enhancing social and cultural relations within local
communities.
  可持续农业方法广泛利用了传统和本地知识,把重点放在农民的经验和创新上,从而可以利用适当、可用且成本较低的本地资源,还可改善农民的地位和自主权,提高本地社区的社会和文化关系。

Local means of sale and distribution can generate more money for
the local economy. For every ￡1 spent at an organic box scheme from
Cusgarne Organics (UK), ￡2.59 is generated for the local economy; but
for every ￡1 spent at a supermarket, only ￡1.40 is generated for the
local economy.
  本地销售和分销的方法可以为本地经济带来更多的收入。英国Cusgarne Organics组织的有机盒计划每消费1英镑就可被本地经济带来2.59英镑的收入;而在超市每花费1英镑却仅仅只能给本地经济带来1.4英镑的收入。

10. Better food quality for health
  10.食品质量更高,有益健康 

Organic food is safer, as organic farming prohibits routine pesticide and
herbicide use, so harmful chemical residues are rarely found.
  有机食品更安全,因为有机耕作禁止使用杀虫剂和除草剂,因此很少能发现有害化学品残留物。

Organic production also bans the use of artificial food additives
such as hydrogenated fats, phosphoric acid, aspartame and monosodium
glutamate, which have been linked to health problems as diverse as
heart disease, osteoporosis, migraines and hyperactivity.
  有机生产还禁止使用人工食品添加剂,如硬化油脂、磷酸和谷胺酸钠等,而这些成分与多种健康问题,如心脏疾病,骨质疏松症、偏头痛和机能亢进等有联系。

Studies have shown that, on average, organic food has higher
vitamin C, higher mineral levels and higher plant phenolics - plant
compounds that can fight cancer and heart disease, and combat age-
related neurological dysfunctions - and significantly less nitrates, a toxic
compound.
  研究显示,平均来说,有机食品含有的维生素C、矿物质及植物酚(可以对抗癌症和心脏疾病,对抗与年龄有关的神经机能障碍的植物成分)含量较高。

Sustainable agricultural practices have proven beneficial in
all aspects relevant to health and the environment. In addition,
they bring food security and social and cultural well-being to local
communities everywhere. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive
global shift to all forms of sustainable agriculture.
  可持续农业做法已经被证明在所有健康和环保相关的方便都有益。此外,可持续农业可以给社会带来粮食安全,社会文化健康。全球迫切需要全面转移到各种形式的可持续农业。

Part 1: No Future for GM Crops
第一部分:转基因农作物没有未来
 
One
Why Not GM Crops?
一、为什么不要转基因农作物?

GM crops are neither needed nor wanted
  既不需要也不想要转基因农作物

There is no longer any doubt that genetically modified (GM) crops are
not needed to feed the world, and that hunger is caused by poverty and
inequality, and not by inadequate production of food. According to estimates
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), there is enough food produced to feed everyone using only conventional
crops, and that will remain the case for at least 25 years and
probably far into the future [2].
  世界既不需要也不想要转基因农作物,饥饿是因为贫穷和不公平而非粮食不足造成的,这已经没有任何疑问。根据联合国粮农组织(FAO)的预测,仅仅使用常规的农作物,生产的粮食已经足够喂饱世界上的每个人,而且这种情况至少将维持25年,并可能延伸到未来。〔2〕

Furthermore, as Altieri and Rosset have argued, even if hunger is
due to a gap between food production and human population growth,
current GM crops are not designed to increase yields or for poor small
farmers, so they are unlikely to benefit from them [3]. Because the true
root cause of hunger is inequality, any method of boosting food production
that deepens inequality is bound to fail to reduce hunger [4]. A
recent report by ActionAid concludes that, “The widespread adoption of
GM crops seems likely to exacerbate the underlying cause of food insecurity,
leading to more hungry people, not fewer” [5].
  此外,正如阿尔铁里和罗塞特所论证的一样,即使饥饿是因为粮食生产和人类人口增加之间存在差距造成的,当前的转基因农作物也不会增加产量,也不是为贫穷的小农设计,因此他们不太可能从中受益〔3〕。由于饥饿的真正原因是不公平,因此,任何通过加剧不平等来提高粮食生产的方法注定不会减少贫困〔4〕。行动援助组织(Action Aid)最近的一次报告总结说,“转基因农作物的广泛采用看起来似乎加剧了粮食不稳定的根源,导致贫困人口增多而不是减少。”〔5〕 
 
More importantly, GM crops are not wanted, and for good reasons.
GM crops have failed to deliver the promised benefits, they are causing
escalating problems on the farm, and evidence of the worst hazards
has accumulated despite the notable lack of research on safety. At the
same time, extensive evidence has emerged on the success of sustainable
approaches to agriculture, which makes clear what the rational
choice for the nation ought to be.

  更重要的是,转基因农作物并不是人们所想要的,是有理由的转基因农作物未能带来许诺的好处,却在导致农业问题升级。尽管缺乏对安全性的研究,糟糕危害的证据却正不断增加。同时,农业可持续农业方法成功的广泛证据却在不断出现,这给各国的合理选择指明了道路。 
 
The world market for GM crops has been shrinking simultaneously
as the acreage increased sharply since the first GM crop - the Flavr Savr
tomato - was planted in the United States (US) in 1994, a product soon
withdrawn as a commercial disaster. During the seven-year period from
1996 to 2002, the global acreage of GM crops increased from 1.7 million
hectares to 58.7 million hectares. But only four countries accounted for
99% of the global GM crop acreage in 2002. The US grew 39.0 million
hectares, (66% of global total), Argentina 13.5 million hectares, Canada
3.5 million hectares and China 2.1 million hectares [6].
  自第一个转基因农作物-莎弗番茄(Flavr Savr Tomato )在美国于1994年开始种植以来,随着面积的不断扩大,世界转基因农作物市场却同时在萎缩。这种番茄后来成为商业灾难而迅速退出市场。从1996到2002的7年时间里,全球转基因农作物的种植面积从170万公顷增加到5870公顷。但是,2002年时仅4个国家就占了全球转基因农作物种植面积的99%。美国种植3900万公顷(全球的66%),阿根廷为1350万公顷,加拿大为350万公顷,中国为210万公顷〔6〕。 
 

Worldwide resistance to GM reached a climax last year when
Zambia refused GM maize (corn) in food aid despite the threat of
famine. Zambia has since reaffirmed its decision after a high-level delegation
was invited to visit several countries including the US and the
United Kingdom (UK). As we were drafting this report, a hunger strike
was in progress in the Philippines, in protest of the commercial
approval of Monsanto’s Bt maize.
  2002年赞比亚虽然面临饥荒的威胁,却拒绝接受食品援助中的转基因玉米使世界抵抗转基因的运动达到高潮。在一组高级代表受邀访问了几个国家,包括美国和英国后,赞比亚重申了其决定。我们在起草这份报告时,菲律宾也正在酝酿一次反饥饿运动,抵抗Monsanto[1]公司Bt玉米批准用于商业。

Citizens’ juries and other participatory democracy and social
inclusion processes have been used in India, Zimbabwe and Brazil, to
allow small farmers and marginalised rural communities to assess the
risks and desirability of GM crops, on their own terms and according to
their own criteria and notions of well-being.
  印度、赞比亚和巴西采用了公民陪审团及其它民主及社会参与进程来允许小农和边缘化的农村社区对转基因农作物的风险和渴望度用他们自己的术语,根据自己的标准和对健康的概念来进行评估。

The results show that when and where these events have been
facilitated in a trustworthy, credible and unbiased manner, small farmers
and indigenous peoples have rejected GM crops on the grounds
that they do not need them, and that the GM technology is unproven
and does not meet their needs [7, 8].
  结果显示,这些以可信、可靠和毫无偏见的方式进行的活动中,小农和本地居民都对转基因农作物表示拒绝,原因是他们不需要这些东西,转基因技术并没有得到证明,不能满足他们的需要〔7、8〕等。

The agricultural sector led the dramatic decline of the biotech
industry, before the industry peaked in 2000 on the back of the human
genome project. The Institute of Science in Society (ISIS) has summarised
the evidence in a special briefing to the UK Prime Minister’s
Strategy Unit on GM, submitted in response to its public consultation on
the economic potential of GM crops [9]. Things have got worse since
for the entire industry [10].
  2000年紧跟着人类基因组计划,生物技术产业达到了顶峰,但是之前农业却导致生物技术产业的急剧下降。社会科学院(ISIS)应公众就转基因农作物的经济前景进行询问而向英国总理转基因战略部提交的一份特殊简报中总结了一些证据。对于整个产业来说,事情已经变糟〔10〕。 
 

A report released in April 2003 by Innovest Strategic Value
Advisors [11] gave Monsanto the lowest possible rating with the message
that agricultural biotechnology is a high-risk industry not worth
investing in, unless it changes its focus away from GE (genetic engineering,
synonymous with GM). The report states,

“Money flowing from GE companies to politicians as well as the
frequency with which GE company employees take jobs with US regulatory
agencies (and vice versa) creates large bias potential and
reduces the ability of investors to rely on safety claims made by the US
Government. It also helps to clarify why the US Government has not
taken a precautionary approach to GE and continues to suppress GE
labelling in the face of overwhelming public support for it. With Enron
and other financial disasters, the financial community apparently
bought into company stories without looking much below the surface.....”

  2003年4月由Innovest投资策略价值顾问公司发布的一份报告将Monsanto公司排在了最低的位置,并指出农业生物技术是一个高度风险的产业,不值得投资,除非该产业将注意力从转基因转移。报告陈述说,“从转基因公司流到政客的钱,以及转基因公司雇员频繁为美国管理机构做事带来的很大偏见,减少了投资者对美国政府所宣称之安全性的信任。这也帮助解释了为什么美国政府对转基因没有采用预防的方法,继续压制大多数公众所支持之给转基因识标的提议。随着着安隆(Enron)和其他财务灾难的出现,金融社会只看公司的表面,却没有看看表面下面是什幺?……”

“Monsanto could be another disaster waiting to happen for
investors”, the report concludes.
  “Monsanto可能是投资者的另一个灾难,”报告总结说。

GM crops failed to deliver the benefits
  转基因农作物未能带来好处 

GM crops have simply not delivered the promised benefits. That is the
consistent finding of independent research and on-farm surveys,
reviewed by agronomist Charles Benbrook in the US since 1999 [12,
13] and other studies have borne this out [14].
  转基因农作物并未带来许诺的好处。这与自1999年美国农学家查尔斯·本布鲁克〔12、13〕及其它研究机构〔14〕不断进行的独立研究和现场农业调查发现一致。 

Thousands of controlled trials of GM soya gave significantly
decreased yields of between 5 to 10%, and in some locations, even 12
to 20% compared with non-GM soya. Similar reductions in yield have
been reported in Britain for GM winter oilseed rape (canola) and sugar
beet in field trials.
  转基因大豆上千个试验显示产量比非转基因大豆大幅下降5-10%,而在一些地区甚至达12-20%。在英国也有类似转基因冬油籽菜和糖用甜菜实地试种产量下降的试验报告。

GM crops have not resulted in significant reductions in herbicide
and insecticide/pesticide use. Roundup Ready (RR) soya required 2 to
5 times more herbicide (measured in pounds applied per acre) than
other weed management systems. Similarly, US Department of
Agriculture (USDA) data suggest that in 2000, the average acre of RR
maize was treated with 30% more herbicide than the average acre of
non-GM maize.
  转基因农作物并没有使除草剂和杀虫剂的使用大幅减少。基因改造Roundup Ready(RR)大豆需要的除草剂比其他除草管理系统多2-5倍(以每英亩使用的磅数计算)。类似还有美国农业部(USDA)的资料显示,2000年RR玉米平均每英亩使用的除草剂比非转基因玉米平均每英亩多30%。 

Analysis of four years of official USDA data on insecticide use
shows a pretty clear picture [13]. While Bt cotton has reduced insecticide
use in several states, Bt corn (maize) has had little, if any, impacts
on corn insecticide use. USDA data show that corn insecticide applications
directly targeting the European corn borer increased from about
4% of acres treated in 1995 to about 5% in 2000.
  美国农业部就杀虫剂进行的为期4年的官方资料分析描述了一幅十分清晰的画面〔13〕。虽然几个州的Bt棉已经减少了杀虫剂的使用,但是Bt玉米却几乎没有对玉米杀虫剂的使用带来影响。美国农业部的资料显示,直接针对欧洲玉米螟的玉米杀虫剂的运用从1995年的4%增加到2000年的5%。 
 

The greater cost of GM seeds, the increased herbicide/pesticide
use, yield drag, royalties on seed and reduced markets, all add up to
lost income for farmers. The first farm-level economic analysis of Bt
maize in the US revealed that between 1996 and 2001, the net loss to
farmers was $92 million or about $1.31 per acre.
  转基因种子的较高成本、不断增加的除草剂/杀虫剂的使用、产量阻滞、种子专利费、市场减少等都使农民收入遭受损失。美国就Bt棉的第一手农业经济分析揭示,1996-2001年之间,农民的净损失为9200万美元,即每英亩1.31美元。 

A UK Soil Association report [15] released in September 2002,
estimated that GM crops have cost the United States $12 billion in farm
subsidies, lost sales and product recalls due to transgenic contamination.
It summed up as follows:

“The evidence we set out suggests that….virtually every benefit
claimed for GM crops has not occurred. Instead, farmers are reporting
lower yields, continuing dependency on herbicides and pesticides, loss
of access to markets and, critically, reduced profitability leaving food
production even more vulnerable to the interests of the biotechnology
companies and in need of subsidies.”
  英国土壤协会2002年9月发布的一分报告估计,转基因农作物已经使美国在农业补贴方面花费了约120亿美元,并因转基因污染使销售减少,产品被召回。该报告总结如下: 
 
  “我们展示的证据显示……事实上转基因农作物所声称的各种好处都没有出现。相反,据报告农民的产量降低,继续依靠除草剂和农药,市场准入损失,而最重要的是,利润的减少使粮食生产更为生物技术公司的利益服务,更需要补贴。” 

These studies have not taken into account crop failures elsewhere
in the world, the most serious in India last year [16]. Massive failures of
GM cotton, up to 100%, were reported in several Indian states, including
failure to germinate, root-rot and attacks by the American bollworm,
for which the Bt-cotton was supposed to be resistant.
  此类研究还未考虑世界其他地区的农作物失败情况,最糟糕的是去年在印度的情况〔16〕。据报告,印度几个州大量的转基因棉,几乎是100%都失败了,包括发芽、根腐烂、美国螟蛉的袭击等,后一项本来预计Bt棉可以抵抗。 
 

Two
Escalating Problems on the Farm
二、农业问题升级

Transgenic instability
  转基因的不稳定性

The massive failures of GM cotton in India, and of other GM crops elsewhere
are most likely due to the fact that GM crops are overwhelmingly
unstable, a problem first highlighted in a 1994 review by Finnegan
and McElroy [17]:
  印度转基因棉及其它地区转基因棉大量失败最大的可能是因为转基因农作物十分不稳定,这个问题首先由芬尼根和迈克尔罗伊在1994年时注意到〔17〕:

“While there are some examples of plants which show stable
expression of a transgene these may prove to be the exceptions to the
rule. In an informal survey of over 30 companies involved in the commercialisation
of transgenic crop plants….almost all of the respondents
indicated that they had observed some level of transgene inaction.
Many respondents indicated that most cases of transgene inactivation
never reach the literature.”
  “虽然一些植物的转基因表达显示稳定,但这可能会被证明是规则的例外情况。在对30家从事转基因农作物商业化之公司进行的一项非正式调查中发现……几乎所有的回答者都指出,他们曾观察到了某种程度上的转基因失活。很多回答者表示,大多数转基因失活从来没有在书面上表示出来。” 
 

There is, nevertheless, a substantial scientific literature on transgenic
instability [18, 19]. Whenever the appropriate molecular tools
have been applied to investigate the problem, instability is invariably
found, and that is so even in cases where transgenic stability has been
claimed. In one publication [20] stating in the abstract that “transgene
expression was stable in lines of all the rice genotypes”, the data presented
actually showed that at most 7 out of 40 (18%) of the lines may
be stable to the R3 generation [21]. This paper, like many others, also
misused the failure to deviate significantly from arbitrarily set
‘Mendelian ratios’ as a sign of Mendelian inheritance, or genetic stability.
This is such an elementary mistake in statistics and genetics that
students could fail an exam for it.
  不过,对转基因不稳定性却有实质性的科学文献〔18,19〕。不管在哪儿使用适当的分子工具来对这个问题进行调查,都不可避免地会发现不稳定性,而这在那些宣称稳定的转基因中也一样。一份出版刊物〔20〕的摘要写着“转基因表达在所有大米基因型植品系中都稳定,”而事实上提供的证据却显示,该种植品系40种有7种(18%)到R3代可能稳定。同其他很多报告一样,这份报告也误用了失败资料,企图从很大程度上将武断设置的‘孟德尔式比例’转移作为孟德尔遗传或基因稳定性。这是一个基本的统计错误,如果学生考试出现这种情况将会不及格。 
 

There are two major causes of transgenic instability. The first has
to do with the defence mechanisms protecting the integrity of the
organism that ‘silence’ or inactivate foreign genes integrated into the
genome, so that they are no longer expressed. Gene silencing was first
discovered in connection with integrated transgenes in the early 1990s,
and is now known to be part of the organism's defence against viral
infections.
  转基因不稳定有两个主要原因。第一个与使加入到基因组的外部基因‘沉默’或不活跃,以便其不会再表达的保护生物体完整性的防卫机制有关。基因沉默在90年代早期加入转基因时首先发现,现已成为生物防卫细菌感染的一部分。 

The second major cause of instability has to do with the structural
instability of the transgenic constructs themselves, their tendency to
fragment, to break along weak artificial joints and to recombine incorrectly,
often with other DNA that happens to be around. That is perhaps
the more serious from the safety point of view, as it enhances horizontal
gene transfer and recombination (see later).
  不稳定的第二个主要原因与转基因构造本身的结构不稳定有关,这些构造趋向于断裂,沿着人工连接断裂,错误地重新组合,常常与其他碰巧在周围的DNA组合。从安全角度看,这可能更严重,因为这增加了基因横向转移和重组的可能性(参看后文)。 
 
Yet another source of instability has been more recently discovered
[18]. There appear to be certain ‘receptive hotspots’ for transgenic
integration in both the plant and the human genomes. These receptive
hotspots may also be ‘recombination hotspots’, prone to breaking and
rejoining. That, too, would make inserted transgenes more likely to
come loose again, to recombine, or to invade other genomes.
  最近还发现了其他有关不稳定性的源泉〔18〕。植物和人类基因组中,加入转基因时存在某种‘易感受热区’。这些易感受热区也可能是‘重组热区’,易于断裂和重新连接。这也会使插入的转基因更容易再次断开,然后重组或入侵其他基因组。 

Investigations also show that transgene instability may arise in
later generations, and are not necessarily ‘selected out’ during early
generations of growth. This can result in poor and inconsistent performances
of the GM crops in the field, a problem likely to be under-
reported by farmers who settle for compensation with a gagging clause.
  调查还显示,转基因不稳定性可能在其后代中出现,在生长的早期代产品中并没有进行必要的‘筛选’。这也可能导致转基因农作物在田地中性能差、不一致,而这个问题可能并没有被那些根据矫正条款(gagging clause)申请赔偿的农民报告。 

Stop Press
  停止发布 

A newly published report (Makarevitch I, Svitashev SD and Somers DA.
Complete sequence analysis of transgene loci from plants transformed
via microprojectile bombardment. Plant Molecular Biology 2003, 52,
421-32) reveals that the problem associated with the uncontrollable
and unpredictable integration of transgenes is even worse than it
seems, and GM can in no way be equated with conventional breeding
or mutagenesis.
  最新发布的一份报告(马卡列维奇、斯未塔斯夫和佐默斯完成了通过微弹轰击转化之植物的转基因轨迹的排序分析。«植物分子生物学»2003年第52期,421-32页)显示,与转基因加入不可控制和不可预测相关的问题甚至比看起来的更糟,转基因决不可能与常规育种或诱变相同。 
 
The authors point out that the majority of transgenic lines produced
by microprojectile bombardment have "complex transgene loci
composed of multiple copies of whole, truncated, and rearranged delivered
DNAs frequently organized as direct or inverted repeats that are
interspersed with variable-sized genomic DNA fragments" and that the
delivered DNA is integrated into plant genomes primarily through "illegitimate
recombination (IR) associated with double-strand break (DSB)
repair, a process also involved in integration of T-DNA into yeast and
plant genomes."
  们指出,微弹轰击产生的大多数转基因品系都有“复杂的转基因轨迹,由多种完整、缩短的基因组成,而重新安排输送的DNA频繁地组织起来,直接或反向重复,散置于各种尺寸的染色体DNA碎片中”,转入的DNA主要通过与双链断裂(DSB)修复相关的非常规重组(IR)来加入到植物基因组中,这个过程还有T-DNA加入到酵母菌和植物基因组中。” 

"The hallmarks of IR in transgene loci produced via direct DNA
delivery include scrambling of transgene sequences through recombination
of both large and small noncontiguous fragments of the delivered
DNA, frequent incorporation of genomic DNA sequences into the
transgene loci and rearrangement in the genomic DNA flanking the
transgene locus."
  “通过直接输送DNA到转基因轨迹中产生的非常规重组特点包括:通过被输送之DNA的大、小非邻接碎片的重组使转基因序列不规则,频繁地将染色体DNA序列与转基因序列结合,与转基因轨迹侧接的染色体DNA被重新安排。” 

The target sites frequently cannot be fully characterised because
of translocations and deletions in the adjacent genomic DNA. That
means it is not even possible to tell where in the genome the transgene
has integrated, even if the entire sequence of the host genome is
known.
  目标位点常常因邻近的染色体DNA改变位置和消失而不能特性化。这意味着即使知道主染色体的整个序列,甚至也不可能判断转基因加入了基因组的位置。 
The researchers have completely sequenced a few transgene loci
in transgenic oat that appear to be 'simple', and hence may be closer
to having the expected gene order and normal flanking genome
sequences.
  研究员对一些看起来‘简单’的转基因燕麦的转基因序列进行了完全地排序,因此能得到所希望的基因顺序和正常的侧接基因组序列。 

Unfortunately, all three 'simple' loci possess regions of small
scrambled fragments of delivered and genomic DNA. All loci also exhibited
either scrambled filler DNA (unknown origin) flanking the transgene
DNA, or evidence of deletion of the target site DNA.
  不幸的是,所有三个‘简单’的轨迹中,被输送的基因组DNA都有不规则小碎片。所有轨迹还显示,要幺不规则填充DNA(来源不明)与转基因DNA侧接,要幺目标位点DNA消失。 
 
One of the transgenic lines studied was previously characterized,
and shown to have a single major locus estimated to be about 15 kb in
length. However, the T1 progeny analyzed by southern blot with longer
exposure times and more genomic DNA gave two additional minor
transgene loci.
  先前的一项转基因品系研究曾被特性化,并显示有一个约15Kb长的单一主轨迹出现。但是,经较长时间暴露用Southern Blot法(印迹杂交)分析后却得到T1后代,更多的染色体DNA中出现了额外的两条小转基因轨迹。 
 
Southern analysis showed that the genomic DNA flanking both
sides of one of the loci was highly repetitive. Aligning PCR product of
transgene locus with wild type showed that 845 bp of genomic DNA
were deleted from the wild type genome during transgene integration
and that pieces of genomic DNA of unknown origin were integrated into
the locus as filler DNA on both sides of the transgene DNA.
  Southern分析显示,侧接一条轨迹两边的染色体DNA反复性很高。用野生转基因轨迹生成的水平PCR产品显示,在加入转基因的过程中845 bp的染色体DNA从野生染色体中消失,来源不明的染色体DNA碎片被加入到轨迹中,成为转基因DNA两侧的填充DNA。 
 
The target sites of the other two loci could not be identified on
account of extensive scrambling of the genomic DNA. The authors also
point out, "it is now accepted that transgene locus number estimations
based on phenotypic segregation ratios are inaccurate due to perturbations
of transgene expression via transgene silencing or rearrangements
of transgene loci." Depending on the probe used, small, nonfunctional
loci are simply not detected.
  由于存在大量不规则染色体DNA,另外两条轨迹的目标位点也不能被识别到。还指出,“根据表现型分离比率估计的转基因轨迹数量是不正确的,因为通过转基因沉默或转基因轨迹的重新安排已使转基因表达混乱,这一点大家都接受。”根据使用的探针,基本上不能探测到非功能性小轨迹。 

Integration sites are worse than random. There is evidence that
transgene DNA often gets into gene-rich regions and regions prone to
double stranded breaks. The former increases the potential of activating/
inactivating genes, and the latter increases the structural instability
of transgenes and transgenic lines.
  加入位点比随机更糟糕。有证据显示,转基因DNA常常进入富含基因的地方和易于双链断裂的地方。前者增加了启动/去活基因的可能性,而后者则增加了转基因和转基因品系结构的不稳定性。 

Volunteers and weeds
     自生植物与杂草 

Triple herbicide-tolerant oilseed rape volunteers were first discovered in
Alberta, Canada in 1998, just two years after single herbicide-tolerant
GM crops were planted [22]. A year later, these multiple herbicide tolerant
volunteers were found in 11 other fields [23]. The US only started
growing herbicide-tolerant GM oilseed rape in 2001. Research in Idaho
University reported that similar multiple gene-stacking had occurred in
experimental plots over two years, and during the same period, weeds
with two herbicide tolerant traits were also found.
  1998年,三价耐除草剂油菜自生植物在单价耐除草剂转基因作物种植后的两年首先在加拿大阿尔伯达省发现〔22〕。一年后,这些多价耐除草剂自生植物在其他11块土地中也被发现〔23〕。美国从2001年才开始种植耐除草剂转基因油菜。爱达荷州大学的研究报告,两年内试验地中已经出现了类似的多价基因堆叠,同时,还发现两种具有耐除草剂特点的杂草。  

Many other problems with weeds have been identified since (summarised
in ref. 24). Glyphosate-resistant marestail infested over
200 000 acres of cotton in west Tennessee, USA in 2002, or 36% of all
cotton acreage in the state, and some 200 000 acres of soya beans
were also affected. The problem with herbicide-tolerant volunteers and
weeds is such that companies have been recommending spraying with
additional herbicides. US agricultural experts reveal that between 75%
and 90% of GM maize growers are using a product called Liberty ATZ
- a mixture of Aventis’ weed killer glufosinate ammonium and Atrazine,
the traditional herbicide used on maize crops that has been a problem
pesticide for decades [25]. Atrazine is on Europe's Red List and Priority
List for hormone disrupting effects in animals. Glufosinate itself is far
from benign (see later).
  自此之后,关于杂草的很多其他问题也被识别到(参考书目24中有总结)。2002年在美国田纳西州,耐草甘膦杉叶藻侵染了20多万英亩的棉花,占了该州棉花总数的36%,还有20万英亩的大豆也受到影响。耐除草剂自生植物和杂草的问题如此严重,以致各公司被建议喷洒更多的除草剂。美国农业专家揭示,转基因玉米种植商中有75-90%都使用了一种被称为Liberty ATZ(Aventis草胺膦除草剂与用于玉米作物的传统除草剂莠去津的混合物,后者多年来一直是一种问题杀虫剂〔25〕)的产品。莠去津在欧洲被列入了对动物有干扰荷尔蒙效果的红名单和优先名单。草胺膦本身也有很大的危害(参看后文)。  

Bt crops are also experiencing problems with resistance very
likely to develop in target pests (see below). A new patent application
from Monsanto is based on using two insecticides with their Bt crops,
on grounds that Bt-crops could produce resistant strains of insect pests
and “numerous problems remain...under actual field conditions”.
  Bt棉也经历了非常相似的抵抗目标害虫的问题(参看下文)。Monsanto公司运用的一个新专利是对其Bt棉使用两种杀虫剂,因为Bt棉对虫害可产生抗性株,且“实际现场条件下……仍有很多问题。” 

Recent research shows that transgenes from Bt sunflower crossing
into wild relatives made the latter hardier and more prolific, with the
potential of becoming super-weeds [26].
  最近的研究显示,Bt太阳花的转基因交叉进入野生的近亲品种,使后者更硬,繁殖更快,可能成为一种超级杂草〔26〕。 
 
Bt resistance
  Bt抗性
 
Bt crops are genetically engineered to produce insecticidal proteins
derived from genes of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The
likelihood of target pests of Bt crops developing resistance to Bt toxins
rapidly is so great and real that in the US, resistance management
strategies are adopted, involving planting ‘refugia’ of non-Bt crops and
developing Bt crops with high levels of expression, or multiple toxins in
the same crop.
  Bt农作物通常被改造产生衍生于苏云金芽孢杆菌(Bt)基因的杀虫剂蛋白质。Bt农作物目标害虫迅速产生Bt毒素抗性的可能性如此大和真实以致在美国采取了抗性管理战略,包括种植非Bt农作物‘庇护所’和开发有很高表达力的Bt农作物或者在同样的农作物中成倍增加毒素等。 

Unfortunately, pests have developed resistance to multiple toxins,
or cross resistances to different toxins [27], and recent research reveals
that resistant strains are even able to obtain additional nutritional value
from the toxin, thus possibly making them more serious pests than
before.
  不幸的是,害虫对多种毒素产生了抵抗性,或者对不同的毒素有交叉抵抗性〔27〕,最近的研究显示,抗性株甚至能从毒素中获得附加营养价值,从而可能使其成为比以前更严重的害虫。 

Extensive transgenic contamination
  广泛的转基因污染
 
In November 2001, Berkeley plant geneticists Ignacio Chapela and
David Quist published a report in Nature [28] presenting evidence that
maize landraces, growing in remote regions in Mexico, were contaminated
with transgenes, despite the fact that an official moratorium on
growing GM maize has been imposed in the country.
  2001年11月植物遗传学家伊格纳西奥·查佩拉和大卫·奎斯特在«自然»〔28〕上发表了一篇报道,提出一些证据,指出尽管自1998年以来官方已经暂禁种植,但墨西哥偏远地区种植的玉米地方品种还是广泛被转基因污染。 

This sparked off a concerted attack by pro-biotech scientists,
allegedly orchestrated by Monsanto [29]. Nature withdrew support for
that paper in February 2002, an act unprecedented in the whole history
of scientific publication, for a paper that was neither wrong, nor challenged
on its major conclusion. Subsequent research by Mexican scientists
confirmed the finding, showing that the contamination was much
more extensive than previously suspected [30]. Ninety-five percent of
the sites sampled were contaminated, with degrees of contamination
varying from 1% to 35%, averaging 10 to 15%. The companies involved
have refused to provide molecular information or probes for research,
which would sort out which are the liable parties for the damages
caused. Nature refused to publish these confirmatory results.
  这招致了支持生物技术的科学家的共同抨击,怀疑受到Monsanto公司的配合 [29]。2002年2月,«自然»收回了对该篇报告的支持,这在科学刊物的整个历史中都是史无前例的,这篇报告既没有错,其主要结论也没有遭到质疑。墨西哥科学家稍后进行的研究确认了这一发现,显示污染比先前的预测更广泛〔30〕。现场抽样中95%都受到了污染,污染率从1%-35%不等,平均为10-15%。牵涉的公司拒绝提供分子组成或探针进行研究,而这两点可以挑选出导致的损害中哪些是可靠的部分。«自然»拒绝发布这些经证实的结果。  
 
Indeed, one main factor considered by the Innovest report (see
above) that would damn Monsanto is the substantial investor losses
that could arise from unintended transgenic contamination.
Contamination is inevitable, the report states, and could bankrupt
Monsanto and other biotech companies, leaving the rest of society to
deal with the problem.
  事实上,Innovest报告(参看上文)考虑可以谴责Monsanto公司的主要因素是,非故意的转基因污染使很多的投资者遭受了损失。污染不可避免,报告陈述到,可以使Monsanto及其它生物公司破产,让社会来解决问题。 

According to Ignacio Chapela, who finds himself caught up in the
ensuing controversy with his University tenure still hanging in the balance,
transgenic contamination in Mexico is still growing.
  伊格纳西奥·查佩拉发现自己陷入了对其大学任期悬而未决的争议,根据他的说法,转基因污染在墨西哥仍在增加。 
 
The extent of contamination of non-GM seeds is alarming. A
spokesperson from Dow Agroscience was reported as saying that
“the whole seed system is contaminated” in Canada [31]. Dr. Lyle
Friesen of the University of Manitoba tested 33 samples representing
27 pedigreed canola (oilseed rape) seed stocks and found 32 contaminated
[32].
  非转基因种子的污染范围正在令人担忧。Dow Agroscience公司的一位发言人据说在加拿大谈到,“整个种子系统都被污染”。马尼托巴大学的莱尔·弗里森博士对代表27个谱系油菜库存的33个样本进行了测试,发现32个都被污染〔32〕。 
 

Tests on pollen flow found that wheat pollen will stay airborne for
one hour at the minimum, which means it could be carried huge distances
depending on the wind speed. Canola pollen is even lighter, and
can remain airborne for 3 to 6 hours. A 35 mile/hour wind is not atypical,
which “makes a real mockery of a separation distance of tens or
even hundreds of metres”, said Percy Schmeiser, celebrated Canadian
farmer who was ordered by the Canadian court to pay ‘damages’ to
Monsanto, despite his claim that his neighbour's GM crop had contaminated
his fields. Schmeiser lost his appeal in the Federal Court, but
has just won his right to be heard in the Supreme Court of Canada.
  对流动花粉的测试也发现,小麦花粉在空气传播中将至少停留一小时,这意味着它根据风速可以运行很长的距离。菜籽花粉甚至更轻,可在空气传播中停留3-6小时。35英里/小时的风速是很正常的,“几十甚至上百米的间距真是一个笑话”,曾经因加拿大法庭命令向Monsanto公司赔偿“损失”而闻名的农民珀西·施迈泽谈到。事实上,他向法庭申述是其邻居的转基因农作物污染了他的土地,在联邦法庭他输了官司,但是却得到了在加拿大高级法庭听证的权力。 
 
Organic farmers in Saskachewan have also started legal proceedings
against Monsanto and Aventis for contaminating their crops
and ruining their organic status.
  萨斯喀彻温省的有机农户也为其受污染的农作物和保持自己的有机地位而启动了针对Monsanto和Aventis公司的法律程序。 
 
The European Commission ordered the study on the co-existence
of GM and non-GM crops in May 2000 from the Institute for Prospective
Technological Studies of the EU Joint Research Centre. The study was
completed and delivered to the European Commission in January
2002, with the recommendation that it not be made public. The suppressed
study, leaked to Greenpeace [33], confirmed what we already
know: coexistence of GM farming and non-GM or organic farming
would be impossible in many cases. Even in cases where it is technically
feasible, it would require costly measures to avoid contamination
and increase production costs for all farmers, especially small farmers.
  2000年5月欧洲委员会命令欧盟联合研究中心的技术预测研究所对转基因农作物和非转基因农作物的共存进行研究。2002年1月研究完成并提交给欧洲委员会,并建议不要公开。这份隐蔽的研究后被泄漏给绿色和平〔33〕,在报告中确认了一些我们已经知道的事实:转基因种植与非转基因或有机耕作的共存在很多情况下都是不可能的。甚至在一些技术上可行的情况下,也需要采取昂贵的措施来避免污染和增加所有农民,尤其是小农的生产成本。 

Transgenic contamination is not limited to cross-pollination. New
research shows that transgenic pollen, wind-blown and deposited elsewhere,
or that has fallen directly to the ground, is a major source of
transgenic contamination [34]. Such transgenic DNA was even found in
fields where GM crops have never been grown, and soil samples contaminated
with pollen was demonstrated to transfer transgenic DNA to
soil bacteria (see later).
  转基因污染不仅仅限于异花授粉。新的研究显示,转基因花粉被风传到其他地方并沉积,或者直接落到地面上是转基因污染的一个重大源泉〔34〕。这种转基因DNA甚至可以在从来没有种植过转基因农作物的土壤中发现,被花粉污染的土壤样本显示,转基因DNA已转移到土壤细菌中(参看后文)。 

Why is contamination such a big issue? The immediate answer is
that consumers are not accepting it. The more important reason is there
are outstanding safety concerns.
  为什么污染是一个如此大的问题呢？一个直接的答案是,消费者不能接受。更重要的原因是,安全隐患越来越突出。 

Part 2: GM Crops Not Safe
  第二部分:转基因农作物不安全 

Three
Science & Precaution
  三、科学与预防原则

Precaution, common sense & science
  预防原则、常识与科学 
We are told there is no scientific evidence that GM is harmful. But is it
safe? That is the question we should ask. Where something can cause
serious irreversible harm, it is right and proper for scientists to demand
evidence demonstrating that GM is safe beyond reasonable doubt.
That is usually dignified as 'the precautionary principle’, but for scientists
and for the public, it is just common sense [35-37].
  我们被告知没有科学证据显示转基因有害。但是,它安全吗？这是我们应该询问的问题。由于一些事情可能导致不可挽回的严重危害,因此科学家在合理怀疑之外,要求有证据显示转基因安全也是正确和适当的。而这通常被夸大为“预防原则”,但是对科学家和公众来说,这只是一个常识〔35-37〕。 

Scientific evidence is no different from ordinary evidence, and
should be understood and judged in the same way. Evidence from different
sources and of different kinds has to be weighed and combined
to guide policy decisions and actions. That’s good science as well as
good sense.
  科学证据与普通证据并没有区别,应以同样的方式来理解和判断。不同来源和不同种类的证据必须结合起来权衡,以便指导政策决定和行动。这才是科学的,理智的。

Genetic engineering involves recombining, i.e., joining together in
new combinations, DNA from different sources, and inserting them into
the genomes of organisms to make ‘genetically modified organisms’, or
‘GMOs’ [38].
  转基因工程需要重组不同来源的DNA,即将新的组合联合起来,然后将这些DNA插入生物基因组中,使其成为“转基因生物”,简称GMO〔38〕。 
 
GMOs are unnatural, not just because they have been produced
in the laboratory, but because many of them can only be made in the
laboratory, quite unlike what nature has produced in the course of billions
of years of evolution.
  转基因生物不自然,不仅仅因为它们是在实验室中产生,而且因为它们中很多仅仅在实验室中制造,与自然上亿年进化所产生的十分不同。 
 
Thus, it is possible to introduce new genes and gene products,
many from bacteria, viruses and other species, or even genes made
entirely in the laboratory, into crops, including food crops. We have
never eaten these new genes and gene products, nor have they ever
even been part of our food chain.
  因此,完全有可能通过细菌、病毒和其他物种或者甚至完全在实验室中制造的基因把新基因和基因产品引入农作物,包括食用作物中。我们从来没有吃过这些新基因和基因产品,它们也不是我们食物链中的一部分。 
 
The artificial constructs are introduced into cells by invasive methods
that result in random integration into the genome, giving rise to
unpredictable, random effects, including gross abnormalities in both
animals and plants, unexpected toxins and allergens in food crops. In
other words, there is no possibility for quality control. This problem is
compounded by the overwhelming instability of transgenic lines, which
makes risk assessment virtually impossible.
  人工构造的结构通过入侵的方法被引入细胞,导致随机加入基因组,带来不可预测的随机效应,包括动物和植物的完全畸形,不可预见的毒素及食用作物过敏原等。换句话说就是没有质量控制的可能。这个问题因转基因品系十分不稳定而变得更复杂,使风险评估事实上变为不可能。 

Anti-precautionary risk assessment
  违反预防原则的风险评估 
Many of the problems would have been identified if regulators had
taken risk assessment seriously. But as pointed out by Ho and
Steinbrecher [39], there were fatal flaws in the procedure of food safety
assessment from the start, as laid down in the Joint FAO/WHO
Biotechnology and Food Safety Report resulting from an Expert
Consultation in Rome September 30 to October 4, 1996, which has
served as the main model ever since.
  如果规范者曾经进行了严肃的风险评估,则应该已经认识到很多问题。但是正如霍和施泰因布雷歇尔〔39〕所指出的那样,粮农组织和世界卫生组织根据1996年9月30日至10月4日在罗马的专家协商会而在«生物技术与粮食安全联合报告»中所制定的粮食安全评估程序从一开始就存在致命的缺陷。该报告自当时起就一直是主要的模式。 
 
That Report was criticised for :
  人们对报告的批评包括:

.Making contentious claims for the benefits of the technology.
.对此种技术声明的好处声明具有争议 

.Failing to assume responsibility for, or to address major aspects
of food safety, such as the use of food crops for producing
pharmaceuticals and industrial chemicals, as well as issues of
labelling and monitoring.
.未能承担粮食安全的主要责任,或解决粮食安全的重大问题,如利用粮食作物生产药物和工业化学品及识标和监管的问题 

.Restricting the scope of safety considerations to exclude known
hazards, such as the toxicity of broad-spectrum herbicides.
.限制安全考虑的范围,将已知危害,如广谱除草剂的毒性等排除在外 

.Claiming erroneously that genetic engineering does not differ
from conventional breeding.
.错误地声称基因工程与常规育种没有差别 

.Using a 'principle of substantial equivalence' for risk assessment
that is both arbitrary and unscientific.
使用“实质等同原则”进行具争论性和不科学的风险评估 
 
.Failing to address long-term impacts on health and food security.
未能解决长期的健康和粮食安全影响 

.Ignoring existing scientific findings on identifiable hazards,
especially those resulting from the horizontal transfer and
recombination of transgenic DNA.
忽视了科学发现已经认识到的危害,尤其是因转基因DNA横向转移和重组带来的危害。 

All that makes for an anti-precautionary ‘safety assessment’
designed to expedite product approval at the expense of safety considerations.
所有这些都是违反预防原则的“安全评估”以安全考虑为代价,加速产品评估进程。 

The principle of ‘substantial equivalence’ is a sham in
terms of risk assessment
  “实质等同”原则是风险评估的一个幌子 

The biggest faults are in the principle of ‘substantial equivalence’ that
is supposed to serve as the backbone of risk assessment. The Report
stated,
“Substantial equivalence embodies the concept that if a new food
or food component is found to be substantially equivalent to an existing
food or food component, it can be treated in the same manner with
respect to safety (i.e., the food or food component can be concluded to
be as safe as the conventional food or food component).”
  最大的缺陷是作为风险评估骨架的“实质等同”原则。报告陈述说,“实质等同表达的是这样一个概念:如果发现新食品或食品成分与现存食品或食品成分实质等同,则在安全性方面可将其以相同的方式对待(即,可以得出食品或食品成分与常规食品或食品成分一样安全的结论)。” 
 

As can be seen, the principle is vague and ill defined. But what follows
makes clear that it is intended to be as flexible, malleable and
open to interpretation as possible.
  正如可以看到的一样,该原则含糊不清,且定义松散。但是,接下来的规定则清楚表明,该原则就是为了使解释尽可能灵活、有延展性和开放。 
 

“Establishment of substantial equivalence is not a safety assessment
in itself, but a dynamic, analytical exercise in the assessment of
the safety of a new food relative to an existing food. The comparison
may be a simple task or be very lengthy depending upon the amount of
available knowledge and the nature of the food or food component
under consideration. The reference characteristics for substantial
equivalence comparisons need to be flexible and will change over time
in accordance with the changing needs of processors and consumers
and with experience.”
  “实质等同的确立不是安全评估本身,而是在评估与现存食品相关之新食品的安全性过程中的动态分析活动。根据现有的知识及被考虑之食品或食品成分的特性,比较可能是一个简单的任务,也很可能需要很长的时间。进行实质等同比较需要灵活参考特性,并根据处理员和消费者不断改变的需求不时改变,还需依经验判断。” 
 
In other words, there would be neither required nor specified tests
for establishing substantial equivalence (SE). Companies would be free
to compare whatever is the most expeditious for claiming SE, and to
carry out the least discriminating tests that would conceal any substantial
difference.
  换句话说,确定实质等同没有经过必需或指定的测试。公司可以自由与任何能最快宣告为实质等同的东西进行比较,所进行之可隐瞒任何实质差别的辨别测试也最少。 

In practice, the principle of SE has allowed the companies to,
  在操作中,实质等同原则允许公司: 
 
.Do the least discriminating tests such as crude compositions of
proteins, carbohydrates and fats, amino acids, selected
metabolites.
.进行最少的辨别测试,如蛋白质、糖类和脂肪、氨基酸及选定之代谢物的天然成分。 

.Avoid detailed molecular characterization of the transgenic insert
to establish genetic stability, gene expression profiles, metabolic
profiles, etc., that would have revealed unintended effects.
.避免详细描述转基因插入物的分子特性,以确定基因的稳定性、基因的表达图谱(gene expression profie)、代谢图谱等,而这些可能揭示一些非意图性的作用。 
 
.Claim that the transgenic line is substantially equivalent to the
non-transgenic line except for the transgene product, and to
carry out risk assessment solely on the transgene product,
thereby, again, ignoring any and all unintended changes.
声称除基因产品外,转基因品系与其他与非转基因品系实质等同,因此只对转基因产品进行风险评估,从而再次忽略了所有非意图性的变化。 
 

.Avoid comparing the transgenic line to its non-transgenic ‘parent’
grown under the same range of environmental conditions.
避免将转基因品系与在同等环境下生长的非转基因品系“亲体”进行比较。 
 

.Compare the transgenic line to any variety within the species,
and even to an abstract entity made up of the composite of
selected characteristics from all varieties within the species, so
that the transgenic line could have the worst features of every
variety and still be considered SE.
 将转基因品系与物种范围内的任何一种进行比较,甚至是与由物种范围内所有品种选择特性复合制造出的抽象实体进行比较,因此,即便转基因品系有各品种最糟糕的特点也仍然被认为是实质等同。 
  
.Compare different components of a transgenic line with different
species, as in the case of a transgenic canola engineered to
produce lauric acid. But “other fatty acids components are
Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) when evaluated
individually because they are present at similar levels in other
commonly consumed oils.”
将转基因品系的不同成分与不同的物种进行比较,正如转基因油菜被改造产生月桂酸的情况一样。然而“单独评估时,其他脂肪酸成分‘公认为安全’(GRAS),因为它们与其他正常消耗的油类表现出类似的水平。” 

No wonder the Report could go on to state,
“Up to the present time, and probably for the near future, there
have been few, if any examples of foods or food components produced
using genetic modification which could be considered to be not substantially
equivalent to existing foods or food components.”
  难怪,报告继续陈述说:“到目前为止,可能在不久的将来,也很少有基因改造制造的食品或食品成分样本被认为与现存食品或食品成分不是实质等同。” 
Transgenic instability makes regulation based on this principle of
SE even more ridiculous. A paper presented a year earlier at a WHO
workshop [40] stated, “The main difficulty associated with the biosafety
assessment of transgenic crops is the unpredictable nature of transformation.
The unpredictability raises the concern that transgenic plants
will behave in an inconsistent manner when grown commercially.”
Consequently, transgenic potatoes, that on field trials “showed marked
deformities in shoot morphology and poor tuber yield involving a low
number of small, malformed tubers” nonetheless gave “virtually no
changes in tuber quality” under the tests applied, and was therefore
passed as ‘substantially equivalent’.
  转基因的不稳定性使根据该实质等同原则制定的规范更加荒谬。一年前向世界卫生组织工作小组提交的一份报告陈述到,“转基因农作物生物安全评估的主要困难是转化后不可预测的特性。这种不可预测性让人担心转基因植物用于商业种植时会表现出不一致的方式。”现场试验转基因马铃薯“拍摄到的形态明显畸形,且块茎生长不良,出现少量的畸形小块茎,”尽管如此, 但在所运用的测试中却给出“在块茎质量上没有实质差别”的结论,因此以“实质等同”被通过。 
 

Contrary to what has been widely claimed, therefore, GM foods
have never passed any required tests that could have established they
are safe. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US had decided
back in 1992 that genetic engineering was just an extension of conventional
breeding, and hence safety assessments were unnecessary.
Although the first transgenic crop, Flavr Savr tomato went through a
nominal safety assessment (which it failed, see later), all subsequent
crops went through a voluntary consultation procedure.
  所以,与广泛宣称的相反,转基因食品从来没有经过任何可以确定其安全的测试。美国食品及药物管理局(FDA)1992年时曾决定支持基因工程仅仅是常规育种的延续,因此没有安全评估必要的看法。虽然第一个转基因作物-莎弗番茄(Flavr Savr Tomato)经历了名义上的安全评估(事实上失败,参考后文),但所有后续农作物都采用了自愿协商程序。 
 
Belinda Martineau, the scientist who conducted the safety studies
on Flavr Savr tomato at the company Calgene, has published a book
[41] in which she stated that “Calgene's tomato should not serve as a
safety standard for this new industry. No single genetically engineered
product should.” She strongly decries the lack of data on health and
environmental impacts of transgenic crops. “And simply proclaiming
that ‘these foods are safe and there is no scientific evidence to the contrary’
is not the same as saying ‘extensive tests have been conducted
and here are the results.’”
  在Calgene公司对莎弗番茄(Flavr Savr Tomato )进行安全研究的科学家-贝琳达·马蒂诺曾出版了一本书,她在书中谈到,“Calgene公司的番茄不应作为该新产业的安全标准。任何一个单一的转基因产品也不可以。”对于缺乏转基因农作物对健康和环境影响的数据,她强烈表示谴责。“仅仅宣布‘此类食品安全,但却没有科学证据’与说‘已进行了广泛检测,结果如下’是不一样的。” 

The US National Academy of Sciences (NAS) released a report in
February 2002 criticizing the USDA for inadequately protecting the
environment from the risks of GM plants [42]. It said that the USDA
review processes lack scientific justification and are not applied uniformly;
the assessment of environmental risks, particularly from plants
genetically engineered to be insect resistant, was “generally superficial”;
and the process “hampers external review and transparency” by
keeping environmental assessments confidential as trade secrets. The
report calls on the USDA to make its review process “significantly more
transparent and rigorous”, to seek evaluation of its findings from outside
scientific experts and to solicit greater input from the public.
  美国国家科学院(NAS)2002年时发布了一份报告,批评美国农业部未能充分保护环境不受转基因植物风险的影响〔42〕。科学院谈到,美国农业部的回顾程序缺乏科学判断,且运用不一致;环境风险的评估,尤其是抗虫性转基因植物的风险评估“通常都是表面文章”;该进程将环境评估作为商业秘密保密,从而“阻碍了外部回顾、没有透明度”。报告呼吁美国农业部使其回过程“更透明和严格”,邀请外面的科学专家对发现进行评估,并要求有更多的公众参与。 
 
There are, indeed, very few independent studies dedicated to the
safety of GM crops to health and the environment. Nevertheless, sufficient
evidence has accumulated to indicate that GM crops are not safe.
  事实上,在转基因农作物对健康和环境的安全性方面,很少有独立的研究。但是不管怎样,已积累了足够的证据说明转基因农作物不安全。 

We are definitely well into the early warning period at which common
sense, or the application of the precautionary principle, can still
avert and ameliorate the disasters that are likely to occur in the longer
term [43].
  我们确实已经进入了早期的警告阶段,在这个阶段,常识,或预防原则的运用仍然可以避免和改善可能持续较长时间的灾难。 

Four
Safety Tests on GM Foods
 四、转基因食品的安全测试

Paucity of published data
 公布之数据极少 

There is a distinct scarcity of published data relevant to the safety of
GM foods. Not only that, the scientific quality of what has been published
is, in most instances, not up to the usually expected standards of
good science.
  公布之有关转基因食品安全的数据明显缺乏。不仅如此,公布之数据的科学性在大多数情况下也与期望的科学标准不符。 
 
In responding to the Scottish Parliament’s recent investigation into
the health impacts of GM crops [44], Stanley Ewen, histopathologist at
Grampian University Hospital Trust, and leader of the Colorectal
Cancer Screening Pilot in Grampian Region, summed up the situation, 
“It is unfortunate that very few animal trials of GM human food are
available in the public domain in scientific literature. It follows that GM
foods have not been shown to be without risk and, indeed, the available
scientific experimental results demonstrate cause for concern.”
  在响应苏格兰议会最近针对转基因农作物对健康影响的调查时〔44〕,格伦坪(Grampian)大学医院信托部的组织病理学家及格伦坪地区结直肠癌普查队的领导,斯担利·埃文对这种情况进行了总结,“不幸的是,不受版权限制的科学文献中很少有关于人类转基因食品的动物试验。因此可以断定,转基因食品并没有被证明没有风险,事实上,现有的科学实验结果令人感到担心。” 
 

Two reports prior to 1999 revealed harmful effects on animals fed
GM foods. The first was a report submitted to the US FDA on Flavr Savr
GM tomatoes fed to rats. Several of the rats developed erosions (early
ulcers) of the lining of the stomach similar to those seen in the stomach
of older humans on aspirin or similar medication. In humans, substantial
life threatening haemorrhage may occur from these early ulcers.
  1999年前的两份报告揭示了用转基因食品饲养动物后的有害影响。第一份是向美国FDA提交之用莎弗 (Flavr Savr)转基因西红柿饲养老鼠的报告。有几只老鼠胃内层受到侵蚀(早期溃疡),与老年人用阿斯匹林或类似药物治疗后的胃相似。在人体中,此种早期溃疡可能导致威胁生命安全的大出血。 
 
The second paper, published in a peer-reviewed journal, was on
feeding raw GM potatoes to month-old male mice. The results revealed
proliferative growth in the lower small intestine [45].
  第二份发表于一份同行评审刊物的论文是关于用转基因生马铃薯饲养一月大雄鼠的报告。结果显示其下端小肠出现增生[45]。 
 
The study by Pusztai and co-workers
  普斯陶伊及其同事的研究
 
No substantive studies on the health impacts on GM food had been carried
out, until the then Scottish Office of Agriculture, Environment and
Fisheries Department (SOAEFD) funded the project headed by Arpad
Pusztai at the Rowett Institute, to undertake a major investigation into
the possible environmental and health hazards of GM-potatoes that
had been transformed by British scientists using a gene taken from
snowdrop bulbs [46].
  由农业、环境及渔业部苏格兰局(SOAEFD)资助、英国罗威研究所阿尔帕特·普斯陶伊领导的项目进行前,并没有进行关于转基因食品对健康之影响的实质性研究。普斯陶伊领导的项目主要调查了由英国科学家使用雪花莲(snowdrop)球茎中提取的基因而改造之转基因马铃薯对环境和健康的潜在危害。 
 

The studies revealed that the two transgenic lines of GM-potatoes,
 which originated from the same transformation experiment, and
were both resistant to aphid pests, were not substantially equivalent in
composition to parent line potatoes, nor to each other. The crude, poorly
defined and unscientific concept of ‘substantial equivalence’ that regulators
rely on in risk assessment has been criticised from its conception
(see above). It has certainly outlived its usefulness.
  研究揭示,两个源自同一转换试验的转基因马铃薯转基因品系都对蚜虫具有抗性,与其亲本系马铃薯并不是实质上等同,彼此之间也不一样。风险评估中规范者所依靠之定义不明确、不科学的“实质等同”粗糙概念曾受到很多批评(参考上文)。因此其有效性当然经不住考验。 
 
More importantly, the results showed that diets containing GM
potatoes had, in some instances, interfered with the growth of the
young rats and the development of some of their vital organs, inducing
changes in gut structure and function, and reducing their immune
responsiveness to injurious antigens. In contrast, the animals fed on
diets containing the parent, non-GM potatoes or these potatoes supplemented
with the gene product had no such effects. Some of the
results have been published since [47-51]. The latest paper [51] is a
comprehensive review on safety tests involving GM foods, including the
unpublished experiments on GM tomatoes submitted to the FDA,
described earlier.
  更重要的是,结果显示,含有转基因马铃薯的食物某种程度上已经干扰了幼鼠及其一些重要器官的生长,包括内脏结构和功能的改变,并使其对有害抗原的免疫反映减少。比较而言,用含有其亲本,即非转基因马铃薯或用基因产品作为补充之马铃薯饲养的动物就没有这种影响。其中一些结果之后已被发表〔47-51〕。最近的一篇论文〔51〕是关于转基因食品安全回顾的全面报告,包括早前提到的曾提交给FDA之有关转基因西红柿未公布的实验。 
 
The findings of Pusztai and colleagues have been attacked by
many within the scientific establishment, but never disproved by repeating
the work and publishing the results in peer-reviewed journals. They
have clearly demonstrated that it is possible to perform toxicological
studies, and that the safety of GM-foodstuffs must be established in
short- and long-term feeding, metabolic and immune-response studies
with young animals, as these are most vulnerable and the most likely
to respond to, and show up, any nutritional and metabolic stresses
affecting development, a view shared by other scientists.
  普斯陶伊及其同事的发现在科学界遭到了很多攻击,但是从来没有被重复实验和同行评审刊物发表的结果所推翻。他们明确表示,进行毒物学研究是可能的,转基因食品的安全性必须用动物幼仔建立短期和长期饲养、代谢和免疫反应研究,因为这些动物幼仔最脆弱,最可能做出反应并显示任何可能影响发育的营养和代谢压力,这一点也得到了其他科学家的认同。 
 
Multivariate statistical analysis of the results carried out independently
by Scottish Agricultural Statistics Service suggested that the major
potentially harmful effects of the GM potatoes were only in part caused
by the presence of the snowdrop lectin transgene, and that the method
of genetic transformation, and/or the disturbances in the potato
genome also made major contributions to the changes observed.
  苏格兰农业统计服务局对结果单独进行的多元统计分析显示,转基因马铃薯对人类健康的潜在危害部分是因为雪花莲血凝素转基因的出现,而基因转换的方法和/或马铃薯基因组受到的干扰也是观察到变化的主要原因。

Ewen and Pusztai’s paper, published in The Lancet [48] aroused
much controversy, and it seems that attempts to discredit Pusztai by
members of the Royal Society continue to this present day.
  埃文和普斯陶伊在«柳叶刀»〔48〕上发表的论文引起了很大的争议,似乎皇家学会成员对普斯陶伊的不信任至今仍在继续。 
 
Ewen and Pusztai measured the part of the small bowel lining that
produces new cells and found that the length of the new cell compartment
had increased significantly in GM fed rats, but not in control rats
fed non-GM potatoes. The increased production of cells had to be due
to a growth factor effect induced by the genetic modification within the
potatoes. (Growth factors are proteins that promote cell growth and
multiplication, that, if uncontrolled, results in cancer.) Similar effects
were observed in the stomach lining [51].
  埃文和普斯陶伊测量了产生新细胞的小肠内层部分,发现用转基因饲养之老鼠的新细胞腔长度大幅增加,但是用非转基因马铃薯饲养之控制老鼠却没有这样。细胞形成增加可能是由于马铃薯基因改造后引发的生长因子引起的(生长因子是能促进细胞生长和繁殖的蛋白质,若不加以控制则会导致癌症)。在胃内层也观察到类似结果〔51〕。 
 
Statistical analysis further revealed that the growth factor effect
was not due to the expressed transgenic protein, the snowdrop lectin,
but was the effect of the gene construct inserted into the DNA of the
potato genome. In other words, non-GM potatoes spiked with snowdrop
lectin simply did not have the same effect.
  统计分析进一步显示,生长因子效果不是由于转基因蛋白质-雪花莲血凝素的表达引起,而是由于插入马铃薯基因组DNA的基因构造导致。换句话说,加了雪花莲血凝素的非转基因马铃薯不会有相同的结果。 
 
The construct includes not only the new gene, but also marker
genes and a powerful promoter from the cauliflower mosaic virus
(CaMV), which is at the centre of a major debate concerning its safety
(see later).
  该构造不仅包括新基因,而且包括花椰菜花叶病毒(CaMV)的标记基因和强劲的启动子,后者是有关其安全性争论的焦点(参看后文)。 
 
Ewen [44] pointed out that although the whole and intact virus
appears to be harmless, as we have been eating cauliflower type vegetables
for millennia, “the use of the separate infectious part of the virus
has not been tested in animals”.
  埃文〔44〕指出,我们已经吃花椰菜型植物有上千年的历史了,虽然整个完整无缺的病毒似乎无害,但是“没有在动物试验中单独使用病毒的传染性部分。” 
 
Further possible undesirable effects may involve the human liver’s
response to hepatitis virus, as the cauliflower mosaic virus and hepatitis
B virus belong to the same family of pararetroviruses, with closely
similar genomes and a distinctive life cycle.
  进一步不良后果可能与人体肝脏对肝炎病毒的反应有关,因为花椰菜花叶病毒和乙肝病毒属于同一类逆转录病毒(pararetroviruse),基因组十分相似,生命周期特别。 
 
That and other potential hazards of the CaMV promoter will be
dealt with in more detail later.
  CaMV启动子此种及其它危害将在后面的章节中进行更详细的讨论。 
 

Five
Transgene Hazards
  五、转基因危害

Bt toxins
  Bt毒素
 
The most obvious question on safety is with regard to the transgene
and its product introduced into GM crops, as they are new to the
ecosystem and to the food chain of animals and human beings.
  最显着的安全性问题是关于引入基因改造作物中的转基因及其产品,因为这些东西目前对生态系统和动物及人类的食物链来说是全新的。  
 

The Bt toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis, incorporated in food and
non-food crops, account for about 25% of all GM crops currently grown
worldwide. It was found to be harmful to mice, butterflies and lacewings
up the food chain [27]. Bt toxins also act against insects in the Order of
Coleoptera (beetles, weevils and styloplids), which contains some
28 600 species, far more than any other Order. Bt plants exude the
toxin through the roots into the soil, with potentially large impacts on soil
ecology and fertility.
  加入粮食和非粮食作物中、源自苏云金芽孢杆菌的Bt毒素占了当前世界种植的整个转基因农作物的25%。据发现该毒素沿着食物链对老鼠、蝴蝶和草蜻蛉有害〔27〕。Bt毒素还对在鞘翅目(甲壳虫、象鼻虫和styloplids)昆虫具有反作用,这一大目包括了28600个物种,远远大于其他大目。Bt植物通过根将毒素排入土壤,能给土壤生态和肥沃带来极大影响。 
 
Bt toxins may be actual and potential allergens for human beings.
Some field workers exposed to Bt spray experienced allergic skin sensitization
and produced IgE and IgG antibodies. A team of scientists
has cautioned against releasing Bt crops for human use. They demonstrated
that recombinant Cry1Ac protoxin from Bt is a potent systemic
and mucosal immunogen, as potent as cholera toxin [52].
  Bt毒素事实上可能是人类的潜在过敏原。一些接触Bt喷剂的工人就经历了皮肤过敏的情况,产生IgE和IgG抗体。一组科学家曾对释放Bt农作物用于人类使用提出警告。他们论证说,Bt的Cry1Act毒素原是一种有力的系统性粘膜免疫原,跟霍乱毒素一样强〔52〕。 
 
A Bt strain that caused severe human necrosis (tissue death)
killed mice within 8 hours, from clinical toxic-shock syndrome [53]. Both
Bt protein and Bt potato harmed mice in feeding experiments, damaging
their ileum (part of the small intestine) [45]. The mice showed
abnormal mitochondria, with signs of degeneration and disrupted
microvilli (microscopic projections on the cell surface) at the surface
lining the gut.
  导致严重人体坏疽(组织死亡)的Bt菌株通过临床中毒性休克综合症可在8小时内杀死田鼠〔53〕。Bt蛋白质和Bt马铃薯在饲养试验中对田鼠有损害,使其回肠(小肠的一部分)遭到破坏〔45〕。田鼠中出现异常的线粒体,内脏内层表面有退化的迹象,微绒毛(细胞表面极小的突出物)也被破坏。 
 
Because Bt or Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus anthracis
(anthrax species used in biological weapons) are closely related to
each other and to a third bacterium, Bacillus cereus, a common soil
bacterium that causes food poisoning, they can readily exchange plasmids
(circular DNA molecules containing genetic origins of replication
that allow replication independent of the chromosome) carrying toxin
genes [54]. If B. anthracis picked up Bt genes from Bt crops by
horizontal gene transfer (see later), new strains of B. anthracis with
unpredictable properties could arise.
  由于Bt(苏云金芽孢杆菌)和炭疽杆菌(生物武器中使用的炭疽热核素)彼此关系十分密切,与第三种细菌,即导致食物中毒的普通土壤细菌-仙人掌杆菌也很密切,因此它们可以很容易地交换携带毒素基因的质粒(围绕DNA的分子,含有可独立复制染色体的复制基因源)〔54〕。如果炭疽芽胞杆菌因基因横向转移拾获Bt农作物的Bt基因(参看后文),将会出现不可预测的新炭疽芽胞杆菌。 
 

‘Pharm’ crops
  “药物”农作物 

Other hazardous genes and bacterial and viral sequences are incorporated
into our food and non-food crops as vaccines and pharmaceuticals
in ‘next generation’ GM crops [55-62]. These pharm crops include
those expressing cytokines, known to suppress the immune system,
induce sickness and central nervous system toxicity, as well as interferon
alpha, which is reported to cause dementia, neurotoxicity and
mood and cognitive side effects. Some contain viral sequences such as
the ‘spike’ protein gene of the pig coronavirus, in the same family as the
SARS virus linked to the current global epidemic [63, 64].
  其他有危害的基因及细菌和病毒序列作为“下一代”转基因农作物的疫苗和药物被加入到粮食和非粮食作物中〔55-62〕。这些药物农作物包括那些表达的细胞活素类(cytokines),它们可以抑制免疫系统,导致疾病和神经中枢中毒,并产生据称可以导致痴呆、神经中毒和对情绪及认知带来负面影响的Alpha干扰素。一些还含有病毒序列,如与当前流感相关之SARS病毒同类的猪冠状病毒中的“尖钉”蛋白质基因〔63,64〕。 

The glycoprotein gene gp120 of the AIDS virus HIV-1, incorporated
into GM maize as a ‘cheap, edible oral vaccine’, is yet another biological
time-bomb. There is a lot of evidence that this gene can interfere
with the immune system, as it has homology to the antigen-binding
variable regions of the immunoglobulins, and has recombination
sites similar to those of the immunoglobulins. Furthermore, these
recombination sites are also similar to the recombination sites present
in many viruses and bacteria, with which the gp120 can recombine to
generate deadly pathogens [65-68].
  AIDS病毒 HIV-1的糖蛋白基因gp120也以“廉价、可食用的口服疫苗”为名加入转基因玉米中,成为另一个生物计时炸弹。有很多证据显示,该基因由于与免疫球蛋白抗原结合可变区同源,且有与免疫球蛋白类似的重组位点,因此可以干扰免疫系统。此外,这些重组位点还可能与当前很多细菌和病菌的重组位点类似,而在这些位点中gp120可重组,产生出致命病原体。 
 
Bacterial and viral DNA
  细菌与病毒DNA 

A hitherto neglected source of hazard - in GM crops, though not in gene
therapy where it is recognized as something to avoid - is the DNA from
bacteria and their viruses, which have a high frequency of the CpG
dinucleotide [24]. These CpG motifs are immunogenic and can cause
inflammation, septic arthritis and promotion of B cell lymphoma and
autoimmune disease [69-73]. Yet many genes introduced into GMOs
are from bacteria and their viruses, and these pose other risks as well
(see below).
  这里还有一个被忽视的危害源(虽然是在转基因农作物中,不是在被认为应避免的基因疗法中),即出现CpG二核启酸频率很高之细菌及其病毒的DNA〔24〕。这些CpG基序(motif)可产生免疫性,导致发炎、脓毒性关节炎,并促进杆菌细胞淋巴瘤和自体免疫疾病的产生〔69-73〕。而很多引入转基因生物中的基因都是来自细菌和病毒,因此也带来其他风险(参看下文)。

Six
Terminator Crops Spread Male Sterility
  六、终结者农作物使雄性不育蔓延

‘Suicide’ genes for sterility
  不育“自杀”基因 
In the interest of avoiding tedious semantic arguments, ‘terminator
crops’ here refer to any transgenic crop engineered with a ‘suicide’
gene for male, female or seed sterility, for the purpose of preventing
farmers from saving and replanting seeds, or protecting patented traits.
  为了避免乏味的语义争论,此处的“终结者农作物”(terminator crops)是指任何使用致使雄性、雌性不育或种子不结果的“自杀”基因而改造的转基因农作物,其目的是为了防止农户储存和重新种植此类种子,或者是为了保护专利特点。 

The public first became aware of terminator technology in patents
jointly owned by the USDA and Delta and Pine Land Company. There
were massive protests worldwide, and Monsanto, which acquired the
Delta and Pine Land patent rights, backed down from developing the
terminator crops described in that particular patent. However, as Ho
and Cummins were to learn, there are many ways to engineer sterility,
each the subject of a separate patent.
  公众首先从美国农业部和Delta & Pine Land公司联合拥有的专利中了解到终结者技术。世界各地强烈表示抗议,而获得Delta & Pine Land公司专利权的Monsanto公司却放弃开发该特殊专利所描述的终结者农作物。但是,正如霍和卡明斯所了解的一样,有很多方法来操纵不育,每个主题都是一个单独的专利。 
 
It transpired that terminator crops have been field tested in
Europe, Canada and the US since the early 1990s, and several were
already commercially released in North America [74]. The GM oilseed
rape, both spring and winter varieties, which form the main part of the
Farm Scale Evaluations in the UK, are engineered to be male sterile.
  据泄露,自20世纪90年代早期以来欧洲、加拿大和美国已经开始带现场试验终结者农作物,在北美,几个品种已经投入商业运用〔74〕。组成英国农场规模评估主要部分的春冬转基因油菜就被改造为雄性不育。 
 
GM oilseed rapes are terminator crops
  转基因油菜是终结者农作物 

The male sterility system in these GM oilseed rapes consists of three
lines.
  这些转基因油菜的雄性不育系统含有三个植株。 

The male sterile line is maintained in a ‘hemizygous’ state, i.e.,
with only one copy of the ‘suicide’ gene, barnase, joined to a glufosinate-
tolerance gene. The barnase gene is driven from a promoter
(gene switch) that’s active only in the anther or male part of the flower.
The expression of the barnase gene in the anther gives rise to the protein
barnase, an RNAse (enzyme that breaks down RNA), which is a
potent cell poison. The cell dies and stops anther development, so no
pollen is produced. This male sterile line is perpetrated in the hemizygous
state by crossing to a non-GM variety, and using glufosinateammonium
to kill off half the plants in the offspring generation that do
not have a copy of the H-barnase transgene joined to it.
  雄性不育株处于“半合”状态,即只有一个“自杀基因”-Barnase基因加入到耐草胺膦基因中。Barnase基因受那些仅仅在花粉囊或雄性部位活跃之启动子(基因开关)的驱使。此种Barnase基因在花粉囊中表达,从而产生Barnase蛋白质(分解RNA的瓷-RNAse,是很强的细胞毒素)。细胞死亡,使花粉囊停止生长,因此不会产生花粉。这种雄性不育品系在半合状态下与非转基因品种交叉,同时使用草甘膦可杀死不含H-barnase转基因的一半后代植物。 
 

The male restorer line is homozygous (with two copies) for the
‘sterility-restorer’ gene, barstar, also joined to the glufosinate-tolerance
gene. The barstar gene too, is placed under the control of the special
promoter that’s active in the anther. Its expression gives the barstar
protein that's a specific inhibitor of barnase, thereby neutralising the latter’s
activity.
  雄性修复品系(两个)同型结合形成“不育修复”基因-Barstar,也加入到耐草胺膦基因中。Barstar基因也被仅仅在花粉囊中活跃的特殊启动子控制。其表达产生了Barstar蛋白质(专门抑制Barnase的抑制剂,从而中和后者的活动)。 
 
Crossing the male-sterile line to the male-restorer line produces a
F1 hybrid, in which the barnase is neutralised by barstar, thus restoring
anther development to produce pollen.
  将雄性不育品系与雄性修复品系交叉可产生F1杂交物,其间Barnase被Barstar中和,从而恢复花粉囊的发育,产生花粉。 
 
It can be shown that the F1 hybrid actually spreads both the herbicide
tolerance gene and the suicide gene for male sterility in its
pollen, with potentially devastating impacts on both agricultural and
natural biodiversity. It makes a mockery of the UK and US governments’
promotion of these plants as a way to ‘contain’ or ‘prevent’ the
spread of transgenes. The real purpose of this kind of terminator engineering
is to protect corporate patents.
  可以看出,F1杂交物事实上在其花粉中既传播耐除草剂基因,也传播雄性不育自杀基因,从而可能对农业和自然生物的多样性带来破坏性影响。这使英国和美国政府宣传这些植物是“限制”或“防止”转基因扩散成为笑柄。此种终结者改造的真正目的是保护公司的专利。 
 

Seven
Herbicide Hazards
  七、除草剂危害 

Herbicide profits
  除草剂带来的利润 

More than 75% of all GM crops currently grown worldwide are engineered
to be tolerant to broad-spectrum herbicides manufactured by
the same companies that make most of their profits from the sales of
the herbicides. These broad-spectrum herbicides not only kill plants
indiscriminately, they are also harmful to practically all species of animal
wildlife and to human beings.
  当前世界种植的所有转基因农作物中超过75%都被改造为耐广谱除草剂。这些除草剂都由一些从除草剂销售中获取大部分利润的相同公司生产。此种广谱除草剂不仅不分青红皂白地杀伤各种植物,而且事实上对所有野生动物和人类也有害。 
 
Glufosinate ammonium
  草胺膦 
Glufosinate ammonium or phosphinothricin, is linked to neurological,
respiratory, gastrointestinal and haematological toxicities as well as
birth defects in humans and mammals [75]. It is toxic to butterflies and
a number of beneficial insects, also to the larvae of clams and oysters,
Daphnia and some freshwater fish, especially the rainbow trout. It
inhibits beneficial soil bacteria and fungi, that fix nitrogen.
  草胺膦或草丁膦与神经、呼吸、肠胃和血液毒性及人类和哺乳动物的出生缺陷有关联[75]。它对蝴蝶和一系列的益虫都有毒,对蛤、牡蛎、水蚤及一些淡水鱼,尤其是虹鳟鱼也有害,会抑制有益的固氮土壤细菌和真菌。 

The loss of insects and plants would have knock-on effects on
birds and small animal life.
  昆虫和植物数量的减少对鸟类和小动物的生命有重大影响。 

In addition, some plant pathogens were found to be highly resistant
to glufosinate while organisms antagonistic to those pathogens
were seriously and adversely affected. This could have catastrophic
impacts on agriculture.
  此外还发现一些植物病原体对草胺膦有强烈的抗性,致使与这些病原体相敌对的微生物遭到严重的负面影响。这将给农业带来大灾难。 
 
The glufosinate tolerant plants contain the pat (phosphinothricin
acetyl transferase) gene, which inactivates phosphinothricin by adding
an acetyl group to it, to make acetylphosphinothricin. The latter accumulates
in the GM plant, and is a completely new metabolite in the
crop, as well as for the entire food chain leading up to human beings,
the risks of which have not been considered.
  耐草胺膦的植物含有PAT(草丁膦乙酰转移酶)基因,可通过加入乙酰组使草丁膦不活跃,从而制造出乙酰草丁膦。后者在转基因植物中累积,是农作物及人类食物链中的新代谢物,其风险并未被考虑过。 
 
Data supplied by AgrEvo, which became Aventis and now Bayer
CropScience, show that micro-organisms in the gut of warm-blooded
animals can remove the acetyl group and regenerate the toxic herbicide.
Phosphinothricin inhibits the enzyme glutamine synthetase, which
converts the essential amino acid, glutamic acid to glutamine. The net
result of the action of glufosinate is that ammonia and glutamate
accumulate at the expense of glutamine. It is the accumulation of
ammonia that is the lethal action in plants.
  前AgrEvo公司,即后来的Aventis公司和现在的Bayer CropScience公司提供的数据显示,温血动物内脏中的微生物可去除乙酰组,使带毒性的除草剂再生。草丁膦将抑制酶合成谷酰胺,即将重要氨基酸、谷氨酸转换为谷酰胺。草胺膦作用的最终结果就是牺牲谷酰胺,使氨水和谷氨酸盐累积。正是氨水的积累导致了植物的致命效应。 
 

In mammals, the consequences of inhibition of glutamine synthetase
are more associated with the increased levels of glutamate,
and decreased levels of glutamine. Circulating ammonia is removed in
the liver by the urea cycle. However, the brain is highly sensitive to the
toxic effects of ammonia and the removal of excess ammonia depends
on its incorporation into glutamine. Glutamate is a major neurotransmitter,
and such large disturbance to its metabolism is bound to impact
on health.
  在哺乳动物中,抑制谷酰胺合成的后果更多的与谷氨酸盐横向增加而谷酰胺横向下降有关。通过尿素回圈,可将回圈氨水从肝脏中排除。但是,大脑对氨水的毒性影响十分敏感,而多余氨水的去除则依赖于将其谷酰胺的结合。谷氨酸盐是一种主要的神经传递素,对其新陈代谢如此大的干扰注定会对健康带来影响。 
 
These known effects are sufficient to halt all field trials of GM
crops immediately, until critical questions about the metabolism, storage
and reconversion of the N-acetylphosphinothricin have been fully
answered for all pat gene-containing products.
  这些已知效果已足够让我立即停止所有转基因农作物的田间试验,直到所有含有PAT基因产品的N-乙酰草丁膦的新陈代谢、储存和再转换等重要问题有了充分的答案。 
 
Glyphosate
  草甘膦 

The other major herbicide used in conjunction with GM crops,
glyphosate, is no better [76].
  另一种配合转基因农作物的主要除草剂-草甘膦也好不到哪里去[76]。 

Glyphosate kills plants by inhibiting the enzyme, 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-
3-phosphate synthetase (EPSPS), critical for the biosynthesis
of aromatic amino acids such as phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan,
vitamins, and many secondary metabolites such as folates,
ubiquinone and naphthoquinone [77]. The shikimate pathway takes
place in the chloroplasts of green plants. The killing action of the herbicide
requires that the plant be growing and exposed to light.
  草甘膦通过抑制5-烯酰丙酮酸莽草酸 3-磷酸盐酶(EPSPS)来杀伤植物,并因其芳香氨基酸,如苯基丙氨酸、酪氨酸和色氨酸、维生素及很多次级代谢产物,如叶酸、泛醌和萘醌等生物合成而受到批评[77]。草酸路径出现在绿色植物的叶绿体中。除草剂的杀伤作用需要植物生长并暴露在阳光下。 
 
GM crops modified to be tolerant to Monsanto's formulation of
glyphosate, called ‘Roundup Ready’, are modified with two main genes.
One gene imparts reduced sensitivity to glyphosate and the other
enables the plant to degrade glyphosate. The expression of both genes
is directed to the chloroplasts, the site of the herbicide activity, by
adding the coding sequences of a plant-derived ‘transit peptide’.
  被改造来对Monsanto公司的 “Roundup Ready”草甘膦配方产生耐药性的转基因农作物中有两个主要的基因被修改。一个基因被告知降低对草甘膦的敏感性,而另一个基因则使植物能降解草甘膦。通过加入源于植物的“转缩氨酸”代码序列使两种基因的表达直接指向叶绿体,即除草剂活动的点位。 
 
The first gene encodes a bacteria-derived version of the plant
enzyme involved in the shikimate biochemical pathway. Unlike the plant
enzyme, which is sensitive to glyphosate, resulting in suppression of
growth or death of the plant, the bacterial enzyme is insensitive to
glyphosate. The second gene, also bacterial, codes for an enzyme that
degrades glyphosate, and its coding sequence has been altered to
enhance glyphosate-degrading activity.
  第一个基因对一个与草酸生物化学路径相关、源于细菌的植物酶进行编码。与植物酶对草甘膦敏感,从而压制植物生长或死亡不同的是,细菌酶对草甘膦不敏感。第二个基因也是细菌基因,对一种使草甘膦降解的酶进行编码,其编码序列已经被修改,以提高草甘膦降解活动。 
 

The shikimate-chorismate pathway is not found in humans and
mammals, and therefore represents a novel target; though it is present
in a variety of micro-organisms. However, glyphosate acts by preventing
the binding of the metabolite, phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) to the
enzyme site [78]. PEP is a central metabolite present in all organisms
including humans. Glyphosate, therefore, has the potential to disrupt
many important enzyme systems that utilise PEP, including energy
metabolism and the synthesis of key membrane lipids required in nerve
cells.
  虽然草酸-变位酶路径已在很多微生物中出现,但在人体和哺乳动物中并未被发现,因此是一个新奇的目标。但是,草甘膦的作用确是阻止代谢物-磷酸烯醇丙酮酸盐(PEP)固结到酶的位点上[78]。PEP是一个出现在所有生物,包括人类中的中央代谢物。因此,草甘膦有可能干扰利用PEP的重要酶系统,包括能量新陈代谢和神经细胞所需的关键膜脂的合成等。 
 
Glyphosate is the most frequent cause of complaints and poisoning
in the UK [79]. Suicide attempts have been successful with as little
as 100 millilitres of a 10 to 20% solution. Widespread disturbances of
many body systems have been reported after exposures at normal use
levels. These include balance disorder, vertigo, reduced cognitive
capacity, seizures, impaired vision, smell, hearing and taste,
headaches, drops in blood pressure, body-wide twitches and tics, muscle
paralysis, peripheral neuropathy, loss of gross and fine motor skills,
excessive sweating and severe fatigue [80].
  草甘膦在英国是投诉和中毒最频繁的原因[79]。只需100微升10-20%的溶液就可以成功自杀。据报告,正常横向接触也使身体的很多系统被广泛干扰,包括平衡失调、眩晕、认知能力减弱、疾病发作、视觉、嗅觉、听觉和味觉减退、头痛、血压下降、全身痉挛、肌肉麻痹、周围神经病、体重减轻、小肌肉运动技能减弱、过度出汗和严重疲劳等[80]。 
 
An epidemiological study in Ontario farm populations showed that
glyphosate exposure nearly doubled the risk of late spontaneous abortion
[81]. Children born to users of glyphosate were found to have elevated
neurobehavioral defects [82]. Glyphosate caused retarded development
of the foetal skeleton in laboratory rats [83].
  对安大略湖农场人口的一项流行病学研究显示,接触草甘膦几乎使晚期自发性流产的风险翻倍[81]。并发现草甘膦使用人群生出的孩子存在严重的神经行为缺陷[82]。草甘膦还导致了实验室老鼠胎儿骨骼的发育迟缓[83]。  
 
Other experimental and animal studies suggest that glyphosate
inhibits the synthesis of steroids [84], and is genotoxic in mammals
[85, 86], fish [87, 88] and frogs [89, 90]. Field dose exposure of earthworms
caused at least 50 percent mortality and significant intestinal
damage among surviving worms [91]. A recent paper reported that
Roundup caused cell division dysfunction that may be linked to human
cancers [92].
  其它试验和动物研究显示,草甘膦可抑制类固醇的合成,对哺乳动物、鱼和青蛙有毒。田地中蚯蚓接触后至少50%死亡,而存活的虫子中小肠也遭到极大侵害[91]。最近的一篇论文报告,Roundup导致了可能与人类癌症相关的细胞分裂机能不良[92]。 
 
As reviewed in reference 76, the nitrogen-fixing symbiont in transgenic
and non-transgenic soya is sensitive to glyphosate, and early
application of glyphosate led to decreased crop biomass and nitrogen.
Glyphosate application at elevated temperature (around 35oC) to
Roundup Ready soya resulted in meristem damage, which is related to
increased transport of the herbicide to the meristem.
  正如参考注释76所回顾的一样,转基因和非转基因大豆中的固氮共生有机体对草甘膦都敏感,早期使用草甘膦导致了农作物生物数量和氮的下降。在较高的温度下(约35℃)对Roundup Ready大豆喷洒草甘膦将导致组织分裂,而这与不断运送除草剂到分生组织中有关。 
 
Glyphosate application in conventional weed control led to
destruction and local extinction of endangered plant species. In forest
ecosystems, it reduces bryophytes and lichens significantly.
Glyphosate treatment of bean seedlings resulted in short-term increases
in dampening-off pathogens in treated soil.
Glyphosate application to control invasive species along tidal flats
gave unexpected secondary effects. After spraying, the herbicide in
sediment declined by 88%, while in the target perennial grass, the herbicide
increased 591%, and was stored in the rhizomes. Glyphosate
persists in soil and groundwater and was found in well water in sites
adjacent to sprayed areas.
  运用草甘膦控制潮滩的入侵物种可带来意想不到的二次影响。在喷洒后,沉淀物中的除草剂减少88%,而目标多年生草中的除草剂则增加591%,并储存在根茎中。草甘膦持续留在土壤和地下水中,而在被喷洒地区邻近的水井中也发现了它的踪迹。 
 
There is a wealth of published scientific studies showing that the
massive increase in use of glyphosate in conjunction with GM crops
poses a significant threat to human and animal health as well as to the
environment.
  很多已发表的科学研究显示,转基因农作物大量增加使用草甘膦对人类和动物健康及环境都带来极大的威胁。

Eight
Horizontal Gene Transfer
  八、基因横向转移

Horizontal gene transfer & epidemics
  基因横向转移与流行病

Horizontal gene transfer, the direct transfer of genetic material into the
genomes of organisms, whether of the same or totally unrelated
species, is by far the most serious safety issue that's unique to genetic
engineering [93].
  基因横向转移,即基因物质直接转移到不论是相同还是完全没有关系的生物体基因组中是到目前为止基因工程所独有的最严重的安全问题〔93〕。 
 
The world has been whipped up into hysteria over terrorist attacks
and 'weapons of mass destruction' since September 11, 2001.
Governments want to ban publication of sensitive scientific research
results, and a group of major life sciences editors and authors has concurred.
Some scientists even suggest an international body to police
research and publication [65].
  自2001年911事件后,世界迅速对恐怖主义袭击和“大规模杀伤武器”进入疯狂的紧张状态。政府想要禁止发布敏感科学研究成果,一些主要生命科学编辑及作家对此表示赞成。一些科学家甚至建议组织一个国际机构来管辖研究与发表活动〔65〕。 
 
But few have acknowledged that genetic engineering itself is
inherently dangerous, as first pointed out by the pioneers of genetic
engineering in the Asilomar Declaration in the mid- 1970s, and as some
of us have been reminding the public and policy-makers more recently
[94, 95].
  但是,很少有人承认,基因工程本身就很危险,正如20世纪70年代中期,«阿西洛马宣言»中基因工程的先驱者们所指出,而我们中的一些人最近提醒公众和决策者的一样〔94,95〕。 
 
But what caught the attention of the mainstream media was the
report in January 2001 of how researchers in Australia ‘accidentally’
created a deadly mouse virus that killed all its victims in the course of
manipulating a harmless virus. “Disaster in the making: An engineered
mouse virus leaves us one step away from the ultimate bioweapon”,
was the headline in the New Scientist article. The editorial showed even
less restraint: “The genie is out, biotech has just sprung a nasty surprise.
Next time, it could be catastrophic.”
  然而,引起主流媒体注意力的是2001年1月一份关于澳大利亚研究员如何在操作一个无害病毒的过程中“偶然”地制造出能杀死所有受害者的致命老鼠病毒的报告。“制造过程中出现的灾难:基因鼠病毒使我们离最终的生物武器只有一步之遥”是«新科学家»中的文章标题。该篇社论冲破克制,谈到:“鬼怪出来了,生物技术带来的是龌龊的意外,可能会是一场大灾难。” 
 
That, and the current SARS epidemic, remind us that horizontal
gene transfer and recombination create new viruses and bacteria that
cause diseases, and if genetic engineering does anything, it is to greatly
enhance the scope and tendency for horizontal gene transfer and
recombination.
  这个事件及SARS流行病提醒我们,基因横向转移和重组制造出导致疾病新病毒和细菌,如果基因工程什幺事都做,将极大地提高基因横向转移和重组的范围与趋势。 
 

Genetic engineering enhances the scope and tendency for
horizontal gene transfer
  基因工程提高了基因横向转移的范围和趋势 
 
In the first place, genetic engineering involves the rampant recombination
of genetic material from widely diverse sources that would otherwise
have very little opportunity to mix and recombine in nature. Some
newer techniques, for example, ‘DNA shuffling’ [96, 97] will create in
the matter of minutes millions of new recombinants in the laboratory
that have never existed in billions of years of evolution. There is no limit
to the sources of DNA that can be shuffled in this way.
  首先,基因工程使不同来源基因物质的重组蔓延,而这些基因在自然界中几乎没有机会混合和重组。一些最新技术,如“DNA重组”〔97,98〕技术几分钟内便可在实验室中制造出上百万在几亿年的进化中都从来不存在的重组物。这种方法对DNA重构的来源没有限制。 
 
In the second place, disease-causing viruses and bacteria and
their genetic material are the predominant materials and tools of genetic
engineering, as much as for the intentional creation of bio-weapons.
And this includes antibiotic resistance genes that make infections more
difficult to treat.
  第二,致病病毒和细菌及其基因物质是基因工程的主要材料和工具,几乎与有意制造生物武器差不多。而且包括了使传染病更难治疗、具有抵抗抗生素特质的基因。 
 
And finally, the artificial constructs created by genetic engineering
are designed to cross species barriers and to jump into genomes, i.e.,
to further enhance and speed up horizontal gene transfer and recombination,
now acknowledged to be the major route to creating new disease
agents, possibly much more important than point mutations which
change isolated bases in the DNA.
  最后,基因工程制造出的人工构造是为了跨越物种屏障,进入基因组,即进一步提高和加速基因横向转移和重组,被认为是制造新疾病作用物的主要路线,可能比改变DNA离析碱基的点突变更重要。 
 
Add to that the inherent instability of transgenic DNA mentioned
earlier, which makes it more likely to break and recombine, and we
begin to realise why we don't need bio-terrorists when we have
genetic engineers.
  加上早前曾提到的转基因DNA固有的不稳定性,使其更容易分裂和重组,这也让我们开始认识到为什么有了基因工程师后,我们不需要生物恐怖主义者。 
 

Nine
The CaMV 35S Promoter
  九、CaMV 35S 启动子

‘Recombination hotspot’
  “重组热区”

Some transgenic constructs are less stable than others, such as those
containing the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter.
  一些基因构造比其他一些较为不稳定,如含有花椰菜花叶病毒(CaMV)35S启动子的基因。 

The CaMV infects plants of the cabbage family. One of its promoters,
the 35S promoter, has been widely used in GM crops since the
beginning of plant genetic engineering, before some of its worrying features
came to light. The most serious is its possession of a ‘recombination
hotspot’, where it tends to recombine with other DNA; although
definitive evidence for that did not appear until much later.
  CaMV可感染白菜族植物。其中的一个启动子,35S启动子,自开始种植基因工程作物以来就被广泛使用,而之前其一些令人担心的特点并不明朗。最严重的问题是这个启动子有一个“重组热区”,可以与其他DNA重组;虽然关于此点的权威证据后来才出现。 
 
Since the early 1990s, major doubts have arisen over the safety
of viral genes incorporated into GM crops to make crops resistant to
viral attack. Many of the viral genes tended to recombine with other
viruses to generate new and at times super-infectious viruses.
  自20世纪90年代早期以来,人们就开始对将病毒基因加入转基因农作物,使其对病毒攻击产生抗体产生了很大的疑问。很多病毒基因都趋向于与其他病毒重组,不时产生新的超级感染病毒。 
 
In 1999, definitive evidence for the recombination hotspot in the
CaMV 35S promoter came from work published independently by two
research groups. This was highly significant in view of the findings of
Ewen and Pusztai reviewed earlier, suggesting that the damage to
young rats fed GM potatoes could be due to the transformation process
itself or to the transgenic construct.
  1999年,两个研究组分别发表的着作提供了CaMV 35S启动子中存在重组热区的权威证据。鉴于埃文和普斯陶伊早前的发现,这对证明用基因马铃薯饲养的幼鼠所受的损害是由于转换过程本身或转基因构造引起的这一点十分重要。 
 
Ho et al. reviewed the safety implications of the CaMV 35S promoter,
pointing out that its recombination hotspot is flanked by multiple
motifs known to be involved in recombination, which are similar to other
recombination hotspots, including the borders of the Agrobacterium TDNA
vector most frequently used in making transgenic plants. The suspected
mechanism of recombination - double-stranded DNA breaks followed
by repair - requires little or no DNA sequence homologies, and
recombination between viral transgenes and infecting viruses has been
amply demonstrated. In addition, the CaMV 35S promoter functions
efficiently in all plants, as well as green algae, yeast and E. coli. It has
a modular structure, with parts common to, and interchangeable with
promoters of many other plant and animal viruses.
  何等人审查了CaMV 35S启动子的安全影响后指出,其重组热区与多种介入重组的基序侧接,包括与基因工程中使用十分频繁的土壤杆菌T-DNA带菌者的边缘侧接,与其他重组热区类似。重组的可疑机制(双链断裂DNA断裂后被修复)需要很少或几乎不需要同族的DNA,而病毒转基因和传染性病毒之间的重组也被放大显示。此外,CaMV 35S启动子在所有植物及绿藻、酵母和大肠杆菌中都有效地发挥作用。它有一个分子结构,部分与其他植物和动物启动子相同并可互换。 
 
These findings suggested that transgenic constructs with the
CaMV 35S promoter might be especially unstable and prone to horizontal
gene transfer and recombination, with all the attendant hazards:
gene mutations due to random insertion, cancer, reactivation of dormant
viruses and generation of new viruses, some of which could
account for the observations described by Ewen and Pusztai [44, 46,
48, 51].
  这些发现显示,带CaMV 35S启动子的转基因结构可能非常不稳定,易于使基因横向转移和重组,出现所有伴随危害:因随机插入而导致基因变异,癌症、休眠病毒恢复活动及新病毒产生等,其中一些可能是埃文和普斯陶伊描述之观察结果的原因〔44,46,48,51〕。 
 

When Ho et al.'s paper [98] was accepted for publication, the
Journal, Microbial Ecology in Health and Disease, put out a press
release on its website, labelling it ‘hot topic’. Within a day, someone by
the name of Klaus Amman appeared to have organised at least nine
critiques that rebounded around the Internet, ranging from the abusive
and condescending to the relatively moderate. It later transpired that
Klaus Amman is a key player in establishing (or, as we perceive, undermining)
biosafety standards on the international scene, and holds many
posts in organizations funded by the biotech industry.
  当何等人的论文〔98〕被同意发表时,«疾病与健康的微生生态学»杂志在其网站上发布了一则新闻,并标明“热点话题”。一天内,某署名为克劳斯·阿曼得到人似乎围绕互联网组织了至少9次批评,既有辱骂,也有屈尊,还有相对温和的评价。之后据透露,克劳斯·阿曼是建立(或者从我们的观点来看是破坏)国际生物安全标准的关键人物,在生物公司资助的组织中担任很多职位。 
 
Ho et al. answered all the criticisms in a paper that was circulated
on the Internet, and subsequently published in the same scientific journal.
The critics have failed to respond to this day.
  何等人在一份网上发布的报告中回答了所有的批评,之后又在同一科学杂志上发表了该篇报告。至今,批评者也未做出回应。 
 
Unfortunately, the most outrageous and abusive remarks were
incorporated into one ‘analysis’ piece written by an editor of Nature
biotechnology under ‘Business and regulatory news’ [99]. That ‘analysis’,
concocted entirely of hearsay and opinions, contained such defamatory,
libellous statements that the journal had to give Ho et al. a right
to reply when challenged. The reply was eventually published several
months later [100], along with the editor's ‘apology’ that he had failed to
cite their rebuttal, but was actually another attack on them. This time,
Nature biotechnology refused to let them reply.
  不幸的是,最蛮横、最恶毒的评论被掺合到一份由«自然生物技术»“商业与规范新闻”专栏编辑撰写的“分析”文章中〔99〕。该份“分析”完全是在编造谣言,其含有的陈述如此破坏名誉和中伤他人以致该杂志被质问,不得不给何等人一个正确的答复。几个月后,答复最后发布了〔100〕,并有编辑的“道歉”,但是该道歉不但没有指出他们的反驳之处,反而事实上是另一次攻击。这一次,«自然生物技术»杂志拒绝让他们答复。 
 
All of the substantive scientific criticisms eventually turned up in a
paper published in the journal where the original paper appeared, coauthored
by Roger Hull and Phil Dale, a member of the UK Advisory
Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) [101]. Their main
criticisms boiled down to the following.
  接下来的所有科学批评最终都在杂志中的一篇论文中发表,同时出现了由罗杰·赫尔和英国新食品与工艺咨询委员会(ACNFP)的成员-菲尔·戴尔联合编写的原文,〔101〕。他们的主要批评摘要如下: 
 
First, people have been eating the virus in infected cabbages and
cauliflower for many years without harm, so why should they worry
about the CaMV 35S promoter?
  1.多年来,人们吃了受病毒污染的白菜和花椰菜菜花而无害,为何要担心CaMV启动因子？ 
 
Second, plants are already loaded with pararetroviral sequences,
not unlike CaMV, so why should there be any risks?
  2.植物已经被装载了与CaMV相似的逆转录病毒,为何还会有任何风险呢？ 

The criticisms were thoroughly rebutted in a paper that was longer
than the original, which appeared in the same journal soon afterwards
[102]. And no further response followed. In fact, critics were careful
never to mention the rebuttal.
  这些批评在一份比原文还长的报告中完全被驳斥,这份报告之后很快出现在同一杂志中〔102〕。然后也没有进一步的回应。事实上,批评者十分小心,从来没有提到反驳。 
 
It was pointed out, among other things, that people have not been
eating CaMV 35S promoter plucked from its natural genetic and evolutionary
context and incorporated into transgenic DNA.
  其他指出的一些事情包括,人们还没有开始食用从其自然进化基因中采集,然后加入到转基因DNA中的CaMV 35S启动因子。 
 
The fact that plants are ‘loaded’ with pararetroviral sequences
similar to CaMV and other potentially mobile elements can only make
things worse. Pararetroviruses are viruses that use reverse transcriptase,
but do not depend on integrating into the host genome for replication.
Pararetroviruses include a family that contains the human
pathogen, hepatitis B virus. The CaMV 35S promoter could activate
dormant viruses like hepatitis B, which was also known to have integrated
into some human genomes, and appeared to be associated with
the disease.
  植物被“装载了”与CaMV及其他可移动元素相似的逆转录病毒这一事实只会使事情更糟。逆转录病毒是使用了逆转录瓷,但不依赖于加入主基因组来复制的病毒。逆转录病毒包括含有人体病原体-乙型肝炎族类的病毒。CaMV 35S启动子可以激活像乙肝病毒这样的休眠病毒,这些病毒也被加入到人类的一些基因组中,与疾病有关。 
 
Most, if not all, of the elements integrated into the genome would
have been ‘tamed’ in the course of evolution and hence are no longer
mobile. But integration of transgenic constructs containing the 35S
promoter may mobilize the elements. The elements may in turn provide
helper-functions to destabilize the transgenic DNA, and may also
serve as substrates for recombination to generate more exotic invasive
elements.
  加入基因组中的元素如果不是全部,也是大部分将在进化的过程中被“驯化”,从而不再移动。但是,在含有35S启动子的转基因构造中则可能使元素移动。这些元素可能依次提供辅助功能,使转基因DNA不稳定,也可能扮演重组基质的功能,从而产生更具毒性的入侵性元素。 
 
Evidence has emerged, since, that integration of foreign genes
into the genome associated with the genetic modification can indeed
activate transposons and proviral sequences, leading to destabilisation
of the genome [103]. So Ho et al. were not wide off the mark.
  之后出现了证据,说明将外部基因加入与转基因相关的基因组事实上可能会使转座子及前病毒序列被启动,从而导致基因组不稳定〔103〕。因此何等人的评论并不是与此不相关。 
 
In the course of debating with the critics, Ho and co-workers found
even more damning evidence [104]. It turns out that although the CaMV
virus infects only plants in the cabbage family, its 35S promoter is
promiscuously active in species across the living world, not just bacteria,
algae, fungi and plants, but also animal and human cells, as they
discovered in a scientific paper dating back to 1990. Plant geneticists
who have incorporated the CaMV 35S promoter into practically all GM
crops now grown commercially were apparently unaware of that, and
are still not admitting to it in public.
  在与批评者讨论的过程中,何及其同事甚至发现更多逃避不了的的证据〔104〕。看起来,虽然CaMV病毒仅仅影响白菜族植物,但其35S启动子在活体世界的物种中漫无目的地活跃,不仅仅是细菌、藻类、真菌和植物,而且包括动物和人体细胞,正如他们在1990年的一份科学论文中发现的一样。将CaMV 35S启动子加入几乎所有用于商业种植的转基因农作物中的植物遗传学者表面上对此似乎不了解,且仍然没有在公众面前承认这一点。 
 
The UK Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment
(ACRE) has no excuse for omitting the information in its latest Report
[105] reiterating “no evidence of harm”, as Ho has drawn attention to it
many times, both in written submissions and in oral evidence presented
at several open hearings. Behind the scenes, however, the CaMV
35S promoter has been quietly withdrawn. It no longer appears in most
of the GM crops under development.
  英国环境释放咨询委员会(ACRE)没有借口可以忽略最新报告中的信息〔105〕,这份报告重申“无有害证据”,而何已经多次注意到这个问题,既有书面的东西,也有几次公开听证会上的口头陈述。然而,在这幕画面的后面,CaMV 35S启动子安静地退出。在当前开发的大多数转基因农作物中已经不再有CaMV 35S启动子出现。 
 
The controversy surrounding the transgenic contamination of
Mexican landraces is not so much that the contamination had occurred,
rather, it is the possibility that, because the transgenic constructs were
unstable, they could be, according to a critic [106], “fragmenting and
promiscuously scattering throughout genomes.” All the transgenic
maize constructs that might have been responsible for the contamination
contained the CaMV 35S promoter, which was why the promoter
could be used to test for transgenic contamination. Such fragmentation
and scattering of unstable DNA throughout the genome are known to
activate dormant proviruses and transposons (see above), causing
DNA rearrangements, deletions, translocations and other disturbances,
which could destabilise the genomes of the landraces, driving the landraces
towards extinction.
  围绕墨西哥本地品种被转基因污染的争论并不是集中在已经出现了污染,而是一种可能性的存在:根据批评者的看法,由于转基因构造不稳定,它们可能“断成碎片且在整个基因组中杂乱地散开“。所有可能需要对污染负责的转基因玉米构造中都含有CaMV 35S启动子的,这也是为什么启动子可被用来检测转基因污染的原因。基因组中不稳定DNA的碎片和分散据知可以启动休眠的前病毒和转位子(参看上文),导致DNA重新被安排、删除、移动及其它干扰,而这些可能使本地品种的基因组不稳定,使本地品种趋向消失。 
 

Ten
Transgenic DNA More Likely to Spread
  十、转基因DNA更容易传播

Transgenic DNA versus natural DNA
  转基因DNA与自然DNA
 
Transgenic DNA is different from natural DNA in many respects, all of
which contribute to its increased propensity for horizontal transfer into
genomes of unrelated organisms, where it may also recombine with
new genes (Box 1) [93].
  转基因DNA与自然DNA在很多方面都是不同的,所有都与前者横向转移到不相关生物体基因组(在这里可能与新基因重组)的倾向加强有关(花边文字1)〔93〕。 
Box 1
Transgenic DNA more likely to spread horizontally
花边文字1  
  转基因DNA更容易横向传播
.Transgenic DNA often contains new combinations of genetic
material that have never existed.
转基因DNA常常含有从来不存在之基因物质的新组合。
 
.Transgenic DNA has been designed to jump into genomes.
转基因DNA被设计用来跳入基因组中。 

.The unnatural gene constructs tend to be structurally unstable
and hence prone to break and join up or recombine with other
genes.
非自然的基因构造结构上趋向于不稳定,因此易于断裂,并加入或与其他基因重组。 
 
.The mechanisms that enable foreign gene constructs to jump
into the genome enable them to jump out again and reinsert
at another site or in another genome. For example, the
enzyme integrase, which catalyzes the insertion of viral DNA
into the host genome, also functions as a disintegrase,
catalyzing the reverse reaction. These integrases belong to a
superfamily of similar enzymes that are present in all
genomes, from viruses and bacteria to higher plants and
animals. Recombinases of transposons are similar.
使外部基因构造跳入基因组中的机制使其能再次跳出,重新插入到另一个位点或基因组。比如,催化病毒DNA插入主基因组中的整合瓷也扮演域分解的功能,促进相反过程的进行。这些整合瓷是所有基因组,从病毒和细菌到高级植物和动物等中出现的相似瓷总科。转座子的重组也类似。 
 
.The borders of the most commonly used vector for transgenic
plants, the T-DNA of Agrobacterium, are recombination
hotspots (sites that tend to break and join). In addition, a
recombination hotspot is also associated with the cauliflower
mosaic virus (CaMV) promoter and many terminators (genetic
signals for ending transcription), which means that the whole
or parts of the integrated DNA will have an increased propensity
for secondary horizontal gene transfer and recombination.
转基因植物中经常使用的带菌者-土壤杆菌T-DNA的边界是重组热区(趋向于断裂和连接的地方)。此外,重组热区也与花椰菜花叶病毒(CaMV)启动子和很多终止子(结束复制的遗传信号)有关联,这意味域加入之DNA的全部或部分将有二次横向转移和重组的可能。 
 

.Recent evidence indicates that foreign gene constructs tend
to integrate at recombination hotspots in the genome, which
again, would tend to increase the chances of transgenic DNA
disintegrating and transferring horizontally.
 最近的证据显示,外部基因构造倾向于在基因组的重组热区融合,这再一次增加了转基因DNA断开断裂和横向转移的机会。 
 
.Transgenic DNA often has other genetic signals, such as
origins of replication left over from the plasmid vector. These
are also recombination hotspots, and in addition, can enable
the transgenic DNA to be replicated independently as a
plasmid that's readily transferred horizontally among bacteria.
转基因DNA常常含有其他遗传信号,如从质粒载体中留下的复制源。这些也是重组热区,此外,还可以使转基因DNA作为一个质粒单独复制,而这些质粒可以在细菌之间横向转移。 
 
.The metabolic stress on the host organism due to the
continuous over-expression of the foreign genes linked to
aggressive promoters such as the CaMV 35S promoter will
also increase the instability of the transgenic DNA, thereby
facilitating horizontal gene transfer.
受体生物体因与侵略性启动子,如CaMV35S启动子相连接的外部基因连续过度表达而带来的代谢压力也会增加转基因DNA的不稳定,从而推动基因横向转移。
 
.Transgenic DNA is typically a mosaic of DNA sequences from
many different species and their genetic parasites; these
homologies mean that it will be more prone to recombine with,
and successfully transfer to, the genomes of many species as
well as their genetic parasites. Homologous recombination
typically occurs at one thousand to one million times the
frequency of non-homologous recombination.
转基因DNA通常是很多不同物种及其演变的寄生生物的DNA序列组成的嵌合体;这些同族关系意味着它将更倾向于与很多物种及其演变的寄生生物的基因组重组并成功转移到这些地方。同族重组频率通常是非同族重组的100万倍。 

Evidence that transgenic DNA is different
  证据显示转基因DNA是不同的 

There has been only one experiment ever carried out to test the
hypothesis that transgenes are the same (or not) as mutants induced
by conventional means (mutagenesis), such as exposure to X-rays and
chemical mutagens, which cause changes in the base sequence
of DNA.
  曾经只进行了一次试验来检验转基因与常规方法(诱变),如接触X光和化学诱变剂,导致DNA碱基顺序改变而产生的突变体是相同的这一假设。 
 
Bergelson and colleagues [107] obtained a mutant for herbicide-
tolerance by conventional mutagenesis in a laboratory strain of
Arabidopsis, and created transgenic lines by introducing the mutant
gene, spliced into a vector, into host plant cells.
  贝格尔松及其同事用常规的诱变法〔107〕从阿布属实验室菌品系得到了一个耐除草剂的突变体,并通过将该突变体基因与带菌者接合,引入主植物细胞而创造了转基因品系。 
 
They then compared the rate at which transgenic and non-transgenic
mutant plants spread the herbicide-tolerance trait to normal, wild
type plants grown nearby. They found that the transgenes from
transgenic plants were up to 30 times more likely to escape and spread
than the same gene obtained by mutagenesis.
  他们于是将转基因与非转基因突变体植物传播耐除草剂特性到附近野生的普通植物中的比率进行了比较,结果发现转基因植物的转基因比诱变形成的基因转移和传播的速度快30倍。 
 
The results are difficult to explain in terms of ordinary cross-pollination.
 Was it because introducing the transgene by means of a vector
led to all kinds of unexpected effects? Did the transgenic plants produce
more pollen, or more viable pollen? Was the pollen from transgenic
plants more attractive to bees?
  从普通的交叉授粉很难解释这个结果。是因为通过带菌者引入转基因而导致了各种意想不到的效果吗？转基因植物是否会产生更多的花粉,或者更容易生存的花粉吗？转基因植物的花粉对蜜蜂有更大的吸引力吗？ 
 
Another possibility for the increased spread of transgenes is horizontal
gene transfer, via insects visiting the plants for pollen and nectar,
or simply feeding on the sap or other parts of successive transgenic
and wild type plants. Bergelson said they had no evidence for horizontal
gene transfer, but could not rule it out. But they have not gone on to
investigate that possibility.
  转基因传播加强的另一个可能是通过昆虫光顾植物花粉和花蜜,或以后续转基因和野生植物的体液或其他部分为食而使基因横向转移。贝格尔松谈到,虽然他们没有基因横向转移的证据,但是也不能排除这个可能。然而他们还没有对此种可能性进行调查。 
 
Regardless of the manner in which the transgenes had spread,
the experiment did demonstrate that transgenic DNA does not behave
in the same way as non-transgenic DNA.
  不管转基因传播的方式是什幺,实验确实显示转基因DNA与非转基因DNA的表现是不一样的。 
 

Eleven
Horizontal Transfer of Transgenic DNA
  十一、转基因DNA的横向转移

Experiments demonstrating horizontal transfer of transgenic DNA
  实验论证了转基因DNA的横向转移 

Horizontal transfer of transgenes and antibiotic-resistant marker genes
from genetically engineered crop plants into soil bacteria and fungi had
been demonstrated in the laboratory by the mid-1990s. Transfer of
transgenes to fungi was achieved simply by growing the fungi with the
GM plant, and transfer to bacteria achieved by applying total DNA from
the GM plant to cultures of bacteria.
  转基因的横向转移及具有抵抗抗生素特质(antibiotic resistance)的标记基因(marker gene)从转基因植物转移到土壤细菌和真菌到20世纪90年代中期已在试验室中得到论证。转基因转移到真菌只须简单地将真菌与转基因植物一起种植就可以实现,而将其转移到细菌则通过运用转基因植物的完整DNA培育细菌即可。 
 
By the late 1990s, successful transfers of a kanamycin-resistance
marker gene to the soil bacterium Acinetobacter were obtained with
total DNA extracted from homogenized leaves in a range of transgenic
plants [108]: Solanum tuberosum (potato), Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco),
Beta vulgaris (sugar beet), Brassica napus (oilseed rape), and
Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato). It was estimated that about 2 500
copies of the kanamycin-resistance genes (from the same number of
plant cells) were sufficient to successfully transform one bacterium,
despite the fact that there was a 6 x 106-fold excess of plant DNA present.
Positive results of horizontal gene transfer in this system were
obtained even with just 100 microlitres of ground-up plant leaf added to
the bacteria.
  到90年代末期,通过从一系列转基因植物〔108〕:马铃薯、烟草、甜菜、油菜和番茄的均质叶子提取的完整DNA曾成功使抗卡那霉素标志基因转移到土壤细菌-不动杆菌。据估计,约2500个抗卡那霉素标记基因(来自相同数量的植物细胞)已足够成功地转移一个细菌,而事实上有6 X 106褶多余的植物DNA出现。在该系统中基因横向转移的正面结果甚至只需要在100微升碾碎的植物叶中加入细菌即可。 
 
Obfuscation & misrepresentation
  模糊与歪曲 

But from the beginning, obfuscation and misrepresentation reigned
supreme. Despite the misleading title in a paper by Schluter, Futterer
and Potrykus, which states that horizontal gene transfer in their experiment
“occurs, if at all, at an extremely low-frequency” [109], the data
demonstrated a high frequency of gene transfer of 5.8 x 10-2 per recipient
bacterium under optimum conditions.
  然而从一开始,困惑与歪曲就占了支配地位。尽管施吕特、波特里库斯、富特等人一篇论文中出现了误导的标题,陈述说在他们的试验中基因横向转移“的出现,如果不是根本不可能,频率也是非常低”〔109〕,然而数据证明在最佳条件下,每个受体菌基因转移频率高达5.8 X 10-2。 
 
But the authors then proceeded to calculate a theoretical gene
transfer frequency of 2.0 x 10-17, or close to zero, under extrapolated
‘natural conditions’. That, they have done by assuming that different
factors acted independently, and by inventing the ‘natural conditions’,
which are largely unknown and unpredictable, and, by the authors’ own
admission, synergistic effects from combinations of factors cannot be
ruled out.
  但是们却继续计算在推断的“自然情况下”,理论上基因转移的频率为2.0 X 10-17,或者说接近零。他们假设不同的因素独立作用,创造出很大程度上都不可知、不可预测的“自然条件”,自认为不能排除因数组和的协同作用。 

This paper was subsequently widely cited as showing that horizontal
gene transfer does not happen.
       这篇论文随后 被广泛引用来说明没有出现横向基因转移

Field experiment provides prima facie evidence
  现场试验提供了初步证据 

In 1999, researchers in Germany [110] had already reported the first,
and still only, field-monitoring experiment in the world, that provided
prima facie evidence that transgenic DNA had transferred from the GM
sugar beet plant debris to bacteria in the soil. Ho circulated a detailed
review of this evidence, and duly submitted it to the UK government's
science advisors. They dismissed that evidence, and worse, cited it as
evidence that horizontal gene transfer did not occur.
  1999年,德国研究员〔110〕就已经报告了世界上第一例,也是到目前为止唯一的现场监控实验,为转基因DNA从转基因糖用甜菜植物的碎片中转移到土壤细菌提供了初步证据。何通报了一份对该证据的详细回顾,并及时提交给英国政府部门的科学顾问。但他们却驳回了这个证据,更糟糕的是,还把它作为没有出现转基因横向转移的证据。 
 
DNA not only persists in the external environment, both in the soil
and in water; it is not broken down sufficiently quickly in the digestive
system to prevent transgenic DNA transferring to micro-organisms resident
in the gut of animals.
  DNA不仅可在外部环境中存活,而且在土壤和水中也可存活。在消化系统中它不会被快速充分分解,以防止转基因DNA转移到寄存在动物内脏中的微生物体中。 
 
Transgenic DNA transfer in the mouth
  转基因DNA在口中转移
 
Such transfer could start in the mouth. Mercer et al. reported in 1999
[111] that a genetically engineered plasmid had a 6 to 25% chance of
surviving intact after 60 minutes of exposure to human saliva.
Moreover, the partially degraded plasmid DNA was capable of transforming
Streptococcus gordonii, one of the bacteria that normally live in
the human mouth and pharynx. The frequency of transformation
dropped exponentially with time, but it was still significant after 10 minutes.
Human saliva actually contains factors that promote transformation
in bacteria resident in the mouth.
  此种转移可从口中开始。1999年梅塞尔等人报告,一个转基因质粒在接触人体唾液60分钟后有6-25%完整存活的机会。此外,部分降解的质粒DNA能转化为通常生活在人体口中和咽喉中的格氏链球菌。转换的频率随着时间的进行而按指数律降低,但是在10分钟后仍然十分显着。人体唾液事实上含有促进口中细菌残留物转换的因子。 
 
This research was done in the test-tube, and the authors clearly
stated that, “further investigations are needed to establish whether
transformation of oral bacteria can occur at significant frequencies in
vivo.” However, no such studies have been carried out since, which is
difficult to understand, as the original research was commissioned by
the UK government, as part of the Novel Foods Programme.
  该项研究是在试管中进行的,清楚陈述,“需要进行进一步调查来确立口中细菌转移到活生物体内发生的频率是否很高。”但是自那之后并没有进行相关研究,这很难理解,因为原始研究是由英国政府进行的新种食品计划的一部分。 
 
Another group in Leeds University, however, got a grant from the
then newly established Food Standards Agency (FSA) to investigate
the possibility of horizontal gene transfer in the stomachs of ruminants
[112], where food remains for long periods of time. The researchers
found that transgenic DNA was rapidly broken down in the fluids from
the rumen and the silage, but that nevertheless, horizontal transfer
could take place before the transgenic DNA was completely degraded.
  然而,利兹大学的另一团体从当时新建立的食品标准局(FSA)获准同意调查基因在反刍动物中的横向转移〔112〕(在反刍动物中,食品将停留很长的时间)。研究员发现,转基因DNA在瘤胃和青贮料液体中被迅速分解,尽管如此,横向转移可在转基因DNA完全被降解前发生。 
 
They also found that transgenic DNA was very slow to break down
in saliva, and therefore, the mouth could be a major site for horizontal
gene transfer. This confirmed the results obtained by Mercer et al. [111].
But once again, no follow-up work was done in live animals. Was it a
case of avoiding doing the obvious experiments for fear of finding positive
results that would be more difficult to dismiss?
  他们还发现,转基因DNA在唾液中分解的速度十分慢,因此,口可以是基因横向转移的一个主要地点。这确认了梅塞尔等人得到的结果〔111〕。但是再一次,没有在活体动物中进行相关的跟踪工作。这是因为担心发现更难驳回的正面结果而避免进行更多的实验吗？ 
 
Transfer of transgenic DNA through the wall of the intestine & the placenta
  转基因DNA通过肠壁和胎盘转移 

There's more to the scope of horizontal gene transfer as revealed in the
existing scientific literature. D.erfler's group in Germany have carried
out a series of experiments on the fate of foreign DNA in food, beginning
in the early 1990s.
  现行科学文献中对基因横向转移的范围有更多的发现。德国德夫勒小组自20世纪90年代初期开始,就食品中外部DNA的命运进行了一系列实验。 
 
They fed mice DNA, either isolated from the bacteria virus M13, or
as the cloned gene for the green fluorescent protein inserted into a
plasmid. They found that a small, albeit significant percentage of the
viral and plasmid DNA not only escaped complete degradation in the
gut, but could pass through the wall of the intestine into the blood
stream, to get into some white blood cells, spleen and liver cells, and
become incorporated into the mouse cell genome [113]. When fed to
pregnant mice, the foreign DNA could be found in some cells of the foetuses
and the newborn animals, showing that it had gone through the
placenta [114].
  他们用M13细菌病毒中离析的DNA,或插入质粒的绿色荧光蛋白克隆基因饲养老鼠,发现内脏中小部分,但是比例很大的病毒质粒DNA不仅完全没有降解,而且能够通过肠壁,进入血流,并进入一些白血球、脾和肝脏细胞,加入到老鼠细胞的基因组中〔113〕。当喂食怀孕的老鼠时,在胎儿和新生动物的一些细胞中可以发现外部DNA,这说明这些DNA已经穿过了胎盘〔114〕。 
 
This work underlines the hazards of all kinds of naked DNA, including
viral genomes, created by the genetic engineering industry, that
Norwegian virologist and science advisor to the Norwegian government,
Terje Traavik [115], and others [94, 95] have drawn attention to.
  这个工作强调了各种裸DNA的危害,包括转基因工程创造的病毒基因组,挪威政府滤过性病原体学者和科学顾问泰耶〔15〕及其他人〔94,95〕曾经也注意到这个问题。 
 
In a paper published in 1998, D.erfler and Schubbert stated [114],
“The consequences of foreign DNA uptake for mutagenesis [generating
mutations] and oncogenesis [causing cancer] have not yet been investigated”.
The relevance of this remark is striking with regard to the cancer
cases identified among the recipients of gene therapy in the latter
part of 2002 [116]. It makes the point that exposures to transgenic DNA
carry the same risks, regardless of whether it is from gene therapy or
from GM foods. Gene therapy is just the genetic modification of human
beings, and uses constructs very similar to those for the genetic modification
of plants and animals.
  在1998年发表的一篇论文中,德夫勒和舒伯特陈述说〔114〕,“对摄入外部基因产生诱变〔产生突变〕和生成肿瘤〔导致癌症〕的后果并没有进行调查。”鉴于2002年下半年在基因疗法的接受者中确认了癌症情况,因此该评注十分引人注目〔116〕。这得出一点结论,不管是通过基因疗法,还是通过转基因食品,接触转基因DNA同样有风险。基因疗法是对人体的基因改造,使用的构造与植物和动物基因改造中的非常相似。 
 

Avoidance of definitive experiments
  避免权威性的实验
 
In a report published in 2001 [117], the fate of ordinary soybean DNA
from soybean leaves was compared with that of transgenic plasmid
DNA. It confirmed earlier findings. Transgenic plasmid DNA invaded the
cells of many tissues.
  在2001年发表的一份报告中,对从大豆叶中提出的普通大豆DNA的命运与转基因质粒DNA的命运进行了比较,从而确定了早前的发现。转基因质粒DNA入侵到很多组织的细胞中。 
 
But like most of the research projects reviewed, this one too,
seemed to have stopped short of attempting to obtain clearer, definitive
results, which could easily have been done by feeding mice transgenic
soya, and monitoring for the fate of both the transgenic DNA and the
plant's own DNA. That would have gone some way to settle the issue
Ho and Cummins have repeatedly raised: that transgenic DNA may be
more invasive of cells and genomes than natural DNA.
  但是正如大多数研究计划所回顾的一样,这一份报告似乎也很快停止了获得更清晰、更权威结果的尝试,而这通过喂食老鼠转基因大豆并监控转基因DNA和植物本身DNA的命运就可以很容易获得。这可在某种程度上解决何和卡明斯反复提出的问题:细胞和基因组中转基因DNA比自然DNA更具入侵性。 
 

Indeed, as Ewen points out [44], the possibility cannot be excluded
that feeding GM products such as maize to animals also carries
risks. Cow’s milk may contain GM derivatives and even a fillet steak
may contain active GM material, as DNA is extraordinarily stable, and
is often not destroyed by heat. DNA has even been recovered recently
from soil sediments 300 000 to 400 000 years old [118]. The lead
researcher Professor Alan Cooper of Oxford University, in his recent
visit to New Zealand, is reported to have said [119], “The ability of DNA
to persist in soils for so long was completely underestimated . . . and
illustrates how little we know,” and “a great deal more research is needed
before we could predict the effect of releasing GE plants.”
  事实上,正如埃文指出的一样〔44〕,不能排除使用转基因产品,如玉米喂食动物存在风险的可能。由于DNA十分稳定,常常不会被高温所破坏,因此牛奶中可能含有转基因衍生物,甚至是一片里脊肉牛排也可能含有活性的转基因物质。最近,甚至是300000-400000年前的土壤沉淀物中的DNA也被恢复〔118〕。首席研究员、牛津大学教授艾伦·库珀在最近访问新西兰时据称曾说道〔119〕,“DNA在土壤中长期保存的能力完全被低估了……这说明我们知道的是多幺少,”,“在我们能预测释放转基因植物的效果前还有很多研究需要做。” 
 
Transgenic DNA in food transferred to bacteria in human gut
  食品中的转基因DNA转移到人的消化道的细菌中 

The UK government eventually commissioned research to look for
horizontal gene transfer into bacteria in the gut of human volunteers
and found positive results.
  英国政府最后委托进行研究,寻找基因是否横向转移到人体消化道的细菌中,并得到了正面的结果。 
 
The research in question is the final part of the UK FSA project on
evaluating the risks of GMOs in human foods [120].
  这项正被讨论的研究是英国食品标准局评估人类食品中的转基因生物风险计划的最后工作〔120〕。 
 
Transgenic DNA transferring to bacteria in the human gut is not at
all unexpected. We already know that DNA persists in the gut, and that
bacteria can readily take up foreign DNA, from previous research
reviewed here. Why had our regulators waited so long to commission
the research? And when they did, the scientists appeared to have
designed the experiment so as to stack the odds heavily against finding
a positive result [121].
  转基因DNA转移到人体消化道细菌中的可能根本就不能排除。从先前回顾的很多研究我们已经知道,DNA可以存留在消化道中,而细菌可以很容易地摄取外部DNA。那幺,为什么我们的规范者还等待这幺长的时间才委托研究呢？而当他们这幺做的时候,科学家似乎已经设计了实验,以便有更多的机会可以阻碍发现正面结果〔121〕。 
 
For example, the method for detecting transgenic DNA depended
on amplifying a small part - 180bp - of the entire transgenic DNA insert
that was at least ten or twenty times as long. So, any other fragment of
the insert would not be detected, nor would a fragment that did not
overlap the whole 180bp amplified, or that had been rearranged. The
chance of obtaining a positive result is 5% at best, and likely to be
much, much less. Thus, a negative finding with this detection method
most probably would not indicate the absence of transgenic DNA.
  比如,探测转基因DNA的方法需要将整个转基因DNA插入物的小部位(180bp)放大、而前者至少比后者长10-20倍。同时不能探测到插入物中的任何其他碎片,也没有1块碎片可以覆盖整个被放大的180bp部位,或者说被重新安排的部位。获得正面结果的机率最多为5%,可能会更小。因此,用这种探测方法而得出的负面发现并不能显示没有转基因DNA转移。 
 
Despite that, they still found a positive result, which the FSA
immediately dismissed and obfuscated. The FSA was reported to have
claimed, “the findings had been assessed by several Government
experts who had ruled that humans were not at risk.” In a statement on
its website, the FSA said that the study had concluded it is “extremely
unlikely” that GM genes can end up in the gut of people who eat them.
  尽管如此,他们还是还发现了一个正面的结果,而食品标准局立即驳回并使其模糊。食品标准局据称曾宣称,“经几位政府专家对该发现进行评估,判定人类并没有受到威胁。”食品标准局在其网站的一篇陈述中谈到,研究已经得出结论,转基因在食用此类食物的人体消化道中停止“十分不可能”。 
 
Agrobacterium vector a vehicle for gene escape
  土壤杆菌带菌者是基因逃逸的一个工具
 
That is not all. Recent evidence strongly suggests that the most common
method of creating transgenic plants may also serve as a ready
route for horizontal gene transfer [122, 123].
  这并不是全部的内容。最近的证据强烈显示,大多数制造转基因植物的普通方法可能是基因横向转移最轻松的路线〔122,123〕。 
 
Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the soil bacterium that causes crown
gall disease, has been developed as a major gene transfer vector for
making transgenic plants. Foreign genes are typically spliced into the
T-DNA - part of a plasmid of A. tumefaciens called Ti (tumour-inducing)
-which ends up integrated into the genome of the plant cell that subsequently
develops into a tumour. That much was known, at least since
1980.
  土壤杆菌,即导致冠瘿病的土壤细菌被开发用来作为制造转基因植物的一个主要基因转移带菌者。外部基因通常被接合到T-DNA(一种被称为Ti(引发肿瘤)的土壤杆菌质粒的一部分),停止后来发展成肿瘤的植物细胞加入基因组。这至少在1980年就已经知道的了。 
 
But further investigations revealed that the process whereby
Agrobacterium injects T-DNA into plant cells strongly resembles conjugation,
or mating between bacterial cells.
  但是,进一步调查显示,土壤杆菌将T-DNA注入植物细胞的过程与接合(conjugation)过程,及病菌细胞之间的杂交过程十分相似。 
 
Conjugation, mediated by certain bacterial plasmids, requires a
sequence called the origin of transfer (oriT) on the DNA that’s transferred.
All the other functions can be supplied from unlinked sources,
referred to as ‘trans-acting functions’ (or tra). Thus, ‘disabled’ plasmids,
with no trans-acting functions, can nevertheless be transferred by
‘helper’ plasmids that carry genes coding for the trans-acting functions.
And that's the basis of a complicated vector system devised, involving
Agrobacterium T-DNA, which has been used for creating numerous
transgenic plants.
  以某种细菌质粒为仲介的接合需要被转移DNA上称为转移源(oriT)的序列。其他所有功能可由被称为“反式作用功能”(或者 tra)的未连接资源提供。因此,没有反式作用功能的质粒将“丧失能力”,从来不会被携带反式作用功能基因编码的“辅助”质粒转移。而那是复杂的带菌者系统的基础,需要用来制造无数转基因植物的土壤杆菌T-DNA的介入。 
 
But it soon transpired that the left and right borders of the T-DNA
are similar to oriT, and can be replaced by it. Furthermore, the disarmed
T-DNA, lacking the trans-acting functions (virulence genes that
contribute to disease), can be helped by similar genes belonging to
many other pathogenic bacteria. It seems that the trans-kingdom gene
transfer of Agrobacterium and the conjugative systems of bacteria are
both involved in transporting macromolecules, not just DNA but also
protein.
  但是,很快得知,T-DNA的左右边界与oriT相似,可以被替代。此外,缓和状态的T-DNA,即缺乏反式作用功能(导致疾病的病原性基因)的T-DNA可通过很多其他病原菌的类似基因来帮助。看起来,土壤杆菌的trans-kingdom基因转移和细菌的接合系统都介入了大分子运输,不仅仅是DNA,而且还有蛋白质。 
 
That means transgenic plants created by the T-DNA vector system
have a ready route for horizontal gene escape, via Agrobacterium,
helped by the ordinary conjugative mechanisms of many other bacteria
that cause diseases, which are present in the environment.
  这意味着,通过T-DNA带菌者体系创造的转基因植物为基因在其他很多出现在环境中、导致疾病之细菌的普通接合机制的帮助下,通过土壤杆菌横向转移提供了方便的路线。 
 
In fact, the possibility that Agrobacterium can serve as a vehicle
for horizontal gene escape was first raised in 1997 in a study sponsored
by the UK Government [124], which reported it was extremely difficult
to get rid of the Agrobacterium in the vector system after transformation.
Treatment with an armoury of antibiotics and repeated subculture
over 13 months failed to get rid of the bacterium. Furthermore,
12.5% of the Agrobacterium remaining still contained the binary vector
(T-DNA and helper plasmid), and were hence fully capable of transforming
other plants. This research was later published in a scientific
journal [125].
  事实上,土壤杆菌可以作为基因横向转移工具的可能性在1997年由英国政府发起的一项研究〔124〕中已经提出,该研究报告说,在转移后很难除掉带菌者体系中的土壤杆菌。用抗菌防护剂进行治疗,并在13个月内重复进行次培养也不能除掉细菌。此外,土壤杆菌中的12.5%仍含有双运载体(T-DNA和辅助质粒),因此完全能转换其他植物。这项研究后来在一份科学杂志上发表〔125〕。 

Several other observations make gene escape via Agrobacterium
even more likely. Agrobacterium not only transfers genes into plant
cells; there is possibility for retrotransfer of DNA from the plant cell to
Agrobacterium [126].
  还有几项观察使基因通过土壤杆菌转移更有可能发生。土壤杆菌不仅将基因转移到植物细胞中,还有可能将DNA从植物细胞中反向转移到土壤细菌中〔126〕。 
 
High rates of gene transfer are associated with the plant root system
and the germinating seed, where conjugation is most likely [127].
There, Agrobacterium could multiply and transfer transgenic DNA to
other bacteria, as well as to the next crop to be planted. These possibilities
have yet to be investigated empirically.
  基因转移的高频率与植物根系和萌芽种子有关,在这些体系中最容易产生接合〔127〕。因此,土壤杆菌可能放大,并将转基因DNA转移到其他细菌和种植的下一代农作物。这些可能性还需通过经验来调查。 
 
Finally, Agrobacterium attaches to and genetically transforms several
human cell lines [128]. In stably transformed HeLa cells (a human
cell line derived originally from a cancer patient), the integration of TDNA
occurred at the right border, exactly as would happen when it is
transferred into a plant cell genome. This suggests that Agrobacterium
transforms human cells by a mechanism similar to that which it uses for
transforming plants cells.
  最后,土壤杆菌可附在几种人体细胞株中,并使其基因转移〔128〕。在转换稳定的海拉细胞(源自一名癌症患者的人体细胞品系)中,T-DNA的加入出现在右侧边界,和转移到植物细胞基因组中完全一样。这显示,土壤杆菌通过与转移植物细胞类似的机制可以转移人体细胞。

Twelve
Hazards of Horizontal Gene Transfer
  十二、基因横向转移的危害

A summary
  总结

As is clear from the past chapters, the hazards that could arise from the
horizontal transfer of transgenic DNA are unique to genetic engineering,
and are summarised in Box 2.
  从前面几章可以清楚看出,转基因DNA横向转移带来的危害是基因工程所独有的,花边文字2对此进行了总结。 
 
Box 2
 花边文字2

Potential hazards of horizontal gene transfer from genetic
engineering
 基因工程中基因横向转移的潜在危害 
.Generation of new cross-species viruses that cause disease.
激发导致疾病的新跨种病毒

.Generation of new bacteria that cause disease.
激发导致疾病的新细菌

.Spread of drug- and antibiotic-resistance genes among the
viral and bacterial pathogens, making infections untreatable.
传播病毒和细菌性病原体中具有抵抗抗生素特质的基因,使感染不可治疗

.Random insertion into genomes of cells, resulting in harmful
effects including cancer.
随机插入细胞的基因组中,导致包括癌症在内的有害结果 

.Reactivation and recombination with dormant viruses (present
in all genomes) to generate infectious viruses.
使休眠病毒(出现在所有基因组中)被重新启动或重组,激发感染性病毒

.Spread of dangerous new genes and gene constructs that have
never existed.
 传播从未存在的危险新基因和基因构造

.Destabilisation of genomes into which transgenes have
transferred.
转基因转移到的基因组不稳定 

.Multiplication of ecological impacts due to all of the above.
由于上述原因使生态影响扩大 

Experiments that appear to have been avoided so far
到目前为止避免进行的实验

These critiques have been communicated to ACRE and ACNFP,
together with a series of obvious experiments that the FSA should commission,
in a paper tabled at an open meeting organised by ACNFP
[129]. These are described in a slightly revised form in Box 3.
  ACNFP组织的一次公开会议中提出了一份报告,将上述评论通报给ACRE和ACNFP,同时附有很多FSA应明显授权的实验〔129〕。花边文字3中的描述对其稍作了修改。 
 

Box 3
花边文字3

Missing experiments on the safety of GM food and crops
未进行的转基因食品及转基因农作物安全性实验 

The following are some definitive experiments that would inform on
the safety of GM food and crops. They seem to have been intentionally
avoided so far.
  以下是一些通告转基因食品及转基因农作物安全性的决定性实验。但到目前为止似乎都在故意避免进行这些实验。

1. Feeding experiments similar to those carried out by Pusztai’s
team, using well-characterized transgenic soya and/or maize
meal feed, with appropriate, unbiased monitoring for transgenic
DNA in the faeces, blood and blood cells, and post-mortem
histological examinations that include tracking transfer of
transgenic DNA into the genome of cells. As an added control,
non-transgenic DNA from the same GM feed sample should also
be monitored. In addition, the role of the CaMV 35S promoter
in producing the ‘growth factor-like’ effects in young rats should
be investigated.
  1.与普斯陶伊小组类似的饲养实验,应使用特点鲜明的转基因大豆和/或玉米进行饲养,并对排泄物、血液、血液细胞进行适当、无偏见的监控,事后进行组织学检查剖析,包括转基因转移到细胞基因组的追踪。还需进行一项额外的控制,监控来自相同转基因饲养样本的非转基因DNA。此外,CaMV 35S启动子在幼鼠中产生“生长因子”效应的作用也应被调查。 

2. Feeding trials on human volunteers using well-characterized
transgenic soya and/or maize meal feed, with appropriate,
unbiased monitoring for transgenic DNA and horizontal gene
transfer in the mouth and in the faeces, blood and blood cells.
As an added control, non-transgenic DNA from the same GM
feed sample should also be monitored.
  2.对自愿者的人体进行进食试验,使用特点鲜明的转基因大豆和/或玉米餐喂食,对口中、排泄物、血液及血液细胞中转基因DNA和基因横向转移进行适当、不偏见的监控。还需进行一项额外的控制,监控来自相同转基因饲养样本的非转基因DNA。 

3. Investigation on the stability of transgenic plants in successive
generations of growth, especially those containing the CaMV
35S promoter, using appropriate quantitative molecular
techniques.
  3.调查转基因植物在后续下代植物生长中的稳定性,尤其是含有CaMV 35S启动子的转基因植物,使用适当的定量分子技术。 
 
4. Full molecular characterisation of all transgenic lines to
establish uniformity and genetic stability of the transgenic DNA
insert(s), and comparison with the original data supplied by the
biotech company to gain approval for field trials or for
commercial release.
  4.所有转基因品系进行完全的分子化性能描述,确定转基因DNA插入的一致性和基因稳定性,并与生物公司所提供之获得现场试验批准或商业释放批准的原始数据进行比较。 
 

5.Tests on all transgenic plants created by the Agrobacterium TDNA
vector system for the persistence of the bacteria and the
vectors. The soil in which the transgenic plants have been
grown should be monitored for gene escape to soil bacteria.
The potential for horizontal gene transfer to the next crop via the
germinating seed and root system should be carefully monitored.
  5.对所有通过土壤杆菌T-DNA带菌者系统留存细菌和带菌者从而获得的转基因植物进行测试。应监控转基因植物生长的土壤中基因转移到土壤细菌的情况。基因通过萌芽种子和根系横向转移到下一代的可能性应仔细监控。 
 

Thirteen
Conclusion to Parts 1 & 2
  十三、第一、二部分结论

Our extensive review of the evidence has convinced us that GM crops
are neither needed nor wanted, that they have failed to deliver their
promises, and instead, are posing escalating problems on the farm.
There is no realistic possibility for GM and non-GM agriculture to coexist,
as evident from the level and extent of transgenic contamination
that has already occurred, even in a country like Mexico where an official
moratorium has been in place since 1998.
  对各种证据的广泛回顾让我们信服:既不需要也不想要转基因农作物,它们未能带来其许诺的好处,相反,正在使农业问题升级。实际上,转基因农业与非转基因农业没有共存的实际可能性,正如从已经出现的转基因污染的程度和范围所显示的一样,甚至像墨西哥这样自1998年已经官方暂停种植的国家也出现了污染的情况。 
 

More importantly, GM crops are unacceptable because they are
by no means safe. They have been introduced without the necessary
safeguards and safety assessments through a deeply flawed regulatory
system based on a principle of ‘substantial equivalence’ that is aimed
at expediting product approval rather than serious safety assessment.
  更重要的是,转基因农作物是不可接受的,因为它们根本不安全。转基因农作物的规范机制有严重缺陷,其基础是“实质等同”原则,并没有必须的防护和安全评估,该原则只是为了加速产品的核准,而是不是进行严格的安全评估。 
 
Despite the lack of data on safety tests of GM foods, the available
findings already give cause for concerns over the safety of the transgenic
process itself that are not being addressed.
  尽管缺乏转基因食品安全性的数据,但是现有的发现已经令人担心转基因进程本身的安全,而这个问题还没有被克服。  
 
At the same time, gene products introduced into food and other
crops as biopesticides, accounting for 25% of all GM crops worldwide,
are now found to be strong immunogens and allergens, and dangerous
pharmaceuticals and vaccines are being introduced into food crops in
open field trials.
  同时,基因产品以生物农药身份加入食品和其他农作物中占了世界所有转基因农作物的25%,这些基因产品被发现是很强的免疫原和过敏原,而危险的药物和疫苗正在被引入开放式现场试种的粮食作物中。 
 
Under the guise of transgene containment, crops have been engineered
with ‘suicide genes’ that make plants male-sterile. In reality,
these crops spread both herbicide tolerance genes and male sterile
suicide genes via pollen, with potentially devastating consequences on
agricultural and natural biodiversity.
  在转基因污染的伪装下,农作物被改造为使植物雄性不育的“自杀基因”。在现实中,这些农作物既传播耐除草剂基因,也传播使雄性不育的自杀基因,可能对农业和自然生物多样性带来毁灭性后果。 
 
About 75% of the GM crops planted worldwide are tolerant to one
or the other of two broad-spectrum herbicides, glufosinate ammonium
and glyphosate. Both are systemic metabolic poisons expected to have
a wide range of harmful effects on humans and other living organisms,
and these effects have now been confirmed.
  世界种植的转基因农作物中约有75%对两种广谱除草剂-草胺膦和草甘膦中的一种或另一种有抗性。两种产品都是系统性代谢毒物,对人体和其他活生物体都有广泛的有害影响。这些影响现在已经得到确认。 
 
Glufosinate ammonium is linked to neurological, respiratory, gastrointestinal
and haematological toxicities, and birth defects in humans
and mammals.
  草胺膦对人体和哺乳动物的神经、呼吸、胃肠和血液毒性及胎儿缺陷有关联。 
 

Glyphosate is the most frequent cause of complaints and poisoning
in the UK, and disturbances of many body functions have been
reported after exposures at normal use levels. Glyphosate exposure
nearly doubled the risk of late spontaneous abortion, and children born
to users of glyphosate had elevated neurobehavioral defects.
Glyphosate caused retarded development of the foetal skeleton in laboratory
rats. It inhibits the synthesis of steroids, and is genotoxic in
mammals, fish and frogs. Field dose exposure of earthworms caused
at least 50 percent mortality and significant intestinal damage among
surviving worms. Roundup causes cell division dysfunction that may be
linked to human cancers.
  草甘膦是英国投诉最多和中毒事件最频的导因,据报告,接触正常水平后也可能扰乱很多身体功能。接触草甘膦后使后期自发性流产的机会翻倍,而草甘膦使用者生出的后代有严重的神经行为缺陷。草甘膦还导致了实验室老鼠胚胎骨骼发育迟缓,阻碍类固醇合成,对哺乳动物、鱼类和青蛙有毒。蚯蚓接触土地中的药剂后至少50%会死亡,而存活的也很大程度上存在肠损害。Roundup导致细胞分裂机能不良,而这可能与人类的癌症有关。 
 
These known effects are sufficient to call a halt to all uses of both
herbicides.
 这些已知效果已足够让我们呼吁停止使用这两种除草剂。 
 
By far the most insidious dangers of genetic engineering are
inherent to the process itself, which greatly enhances the scope and
probability of horizontal gene transfer and recombination, the main
route to creating viruses and bacteria that cause disease epidemics.
  到目前为止,基因工程最隐匿的危险与其制程本身有关。该制程极大地提高了基因横向转移和重组的范围和可能性,而基因横向转移是制造导致疾病流行的病毒和细菌的主要路线。 
 
Newer techniques, such as DNA shuffling are allowing geneticists
to create in a matter of minutes in the laboratory millions of recombinant
viruses that have never existed. Disease-causing viruses and bacteria
and their genetic material are the predominant materials and tools of
genetic engineering, as much as for the intentional creation of bioweapons.
  最新的技术,如DNA重构正允许遗传学者在实验室里几分钟内便可制造出上万种从来不存在的重构病毒。致病病毒和细菌及其基因物质是基因工程的主要材料和工具,与故意制造生物武器差不多。 
 
There is already experimental evidence that transgenic DNA from
plants has been taken up by bacteria in the soil and in the gut of human
volunteers. Antibiotic resistance marker genes can spread from transgenic
food to pathogenic bacteria, making infections very difficult to
treat.
  已有实验证据显示,植物中的转基因DNA已被土壤和志愿者人体的消化道中的细菌摄取。具有抵抗抗生特质的标志基因可从转基因食品中传播到病源细菌,使感染很难治疗。 
 
Transgenic DNA is known to survive digestion in the gut and to
jump into the genome of mammalian cells, raising the possibility for
triggering cancer.
  转基因DNA据知可以在消化道中存活,并跳入哺乳动物细胞的基因组,提高了引发癌症的可能性。 
 
Evidence suggests that transgenic constructs with the CaMV 35S
promoter, present in most GM crops, might be especially unstable and
prone to horizontal gene transfer and recombination, with all the attendant
hazards: gene mutations due to random insertion, cancer, reactivation
of dormant viruses and generation of new viruses.
  证据显示,出现在大多数转基因农作物中、带CaMV 35S启动子的转基因构造可能尤其不稳定,易于产生基因横向转移和重组,出现所有伴随危害:因随机插入而导致基因变异,癌症、休眠病毒恢复活动及新病毒产生等。

There has been a history of misrepresentation and suppression of
scientific evidence, especially on horizontal gene transfer. Key experiments
failed to be performed, or were performed badly and then misrepresented.
Many experiments failed to be followed up, including
investigations on whether the CaMV 35S promoter is responsible for
the ‘growth factor-like’ effects observed in young rats fed GM potatoes.
  科学证据,尤其是关于基因横向转移的证据也有被歪曲和压制的历史。关键的实验未能进行,或者进行得很糟糕,于是被歪曲。很多实验都未能跟踪,包括CaMV 35S启动子是否应对用转基因马铃薯饲养的幼鼠中观察到的“生长因子”负责。  

For all those reasons, GM crops should be firmly rejected as a
viable option for the future of agriculture.
 鉴于所有这些原因,应坚决拒绝把转基因农作物作为未来农业可行性的选择。
 

Part 3. The Manifold Benefits of Sustainable
Agriculture
  第三部分:可持续农业的多种好处

Fourteen
Why Sustainable Agriculture?
  十四、为什么要推行可持续农业？

Alternative agriculture needed
需要另一种农业

‘Modern’ agriculture is characterised by extensive, large-scale
monoculture, and depends on high chemical inputs and intensive
mechanization.
  “现代”农业的特点是广泛、大规模单一栽培,很大程度上取决于大量投入化学品和广泛的机械化。 
 
Although productive as defined by the one-dimensional measure
of ‘yield’ of a single crop, its over-reliance on chemical pesticides, herbicides
and synthetic fertilisers comes with a string of negative impacts
on health and the environment: health risks to farm workers, harmful
chemical residues on food, reduced biodiversity, deterioration of soil
and water quality, and increased risks of crop disease. ‘Modern’ monoculture
also often marginalizes small farmers, particularly those in
developing countries, who are the majority of farmers worldwide. GM
crops, now thrown into the package, are threatening further health and
environmental hazards (see Part 2).
  虽然生产力的定义是单一作物“产量”的一元测量,但是其对化学杀虫剂、除草剂和合成化肥的总体依赖却给健康和环境带来一系列负面影响:对农场工人的健康带来风险,食物上残留有害的化学物,生物多样性减少,土壤退化,水质恶化,农作物疾病风险增加等。“现代”单一栽培还常常使小农被边缘化,尤其是发展中国家的小农被边缘化,他们在世界农业人口中占了绝大多数。现在整个配套的转基因农作物正进一步威胁着环境与健康(见第二部分)。 
 
Many different sustainable agricultural practices
  多种不同的可持续农业技术 

In contrast, sustainable agricultural approaches place the emphasis on
a diversity of local natural resources, and on local autonomy of farmers
to decide what they will grow and how they can improve their crops and
livelihood.
  比较而言,可持续农业方法把重点放在本地自然资源的多样性上,让本地农民来自主决定种植什幺,如何改善农作物和生活。 
 
Agriculture is sustainable when it is ecologically sound, economically
viable, socially just, culturally appropriate, humane and based on
a holistic approach. A brief summary of key criteria, as elaborated by
Pretty and Hine [130], is presented in Box 4.
  当生态安全、经济可行、社会公正、文化仁慈且适当采用全面的方法时,农业才是可持续的。花边文字4中是对普雷蒂和海因〔130〕阐述的关键标准的总结。
 
Sustainable agricultural approaches may come under many
names - agroecology, sustainable agriculture, organic agriculture, ecological
agriculture, biological agriculture - but have these criteria in
common.
  虽然可持续农业方法可能有很多名字(农业生态学、可持续农业、有机农业、生态农业、生物学农业),但是它们都符合此种共同标准。 
 
For example, organic farming largely excludes synthetic pesticides,
herbicides and fertilisers. Instead, it is an ecosystem approach
that manages ecological and biological processes, such as food web
relations, nutrient cycling, maintaining soil fertility, natural pest control
and diversifying crops and livestock. It relies on locally or farm
derived renewable resources, while remaining environmentally and
ecologically viable.
  比如,有机耕作大幅排除了合成杀虫剂、除草剂和化肥的使用。相反,它使用的是一种生态系统方法来管理生态和生物进程,如食物链闸道系、营养物循环、保持土壤肥力、自然虫害控制及农作物和家畜多样化等。它依靠的是本地或可农田衍生可更新资源,同时保持环境和生态。 
 
While many in developed countries may be familiar with certified
organic production, this is just the tip of the iceberg in terms of land
managed organically but not certified as such.
  虽然发达国家的很多人可能对认証的有机生产比较熟悉,但就有机管理土地来说,那只不过是冰山一角,不象认証那幺简单。 
 
De facto or non-certified organic farming is usually prevalent in
resource-poor and/or agriculturally marginal regions where local populations
have limited engagement with the cash economy [131]. Farmers
here rely on local natural resources to maintain soil fertility and to combat
pests and diseases. They have sophisticated systems of crop rotation,
soil management, and pest and disease control, based on traditional
knowledge.
  实际的,即未获认証的有机耕作通常在资源贫乏和/或农业被边缘化的地区十分盛行,在这些地区,本地人口很少介入现金经济〔131〕。那里的农民依靠本地自然资源来保持土壤肥力,与虫害和疾病斗争。他们根据传统的知识,有复杂的轮作、土壤管理、虫害和疾病控制系统。 
 
Likewise, agroecology relies on technologies that are cheap,
accessible, risk averting and productive in marginal environments; that
enhance ecological and human health; and that are culturally and
socially acceptable [132]. It emphasises biodiversity, nutrient recycling,
synergy among crops, animals, soils and other biological components,
as well as regeneration and conservation of resources. Agroecology
relies on indigenous farming knowledge and incorporates low-input
modern technologies to diversify production. The approach combines
ecological principles and local resources in managing farming systems,
providing an environmentally sound and affordable way for small farmers
to intensify production in marginal areas.
  同样地,农业生态学依靠的技术也是在边缘环境中价廉、可接受、可避免风险且具有生力的技术,是可以改善人类健康和生态的技术,是文化和社会可以接受的技术〔132〕。它强调生物多样性,营养物循环、农作物、动物、土壤及其它生态原素的协同作用,以及资源再生和保存。农业生态学依靠的是本土的种植知识并融入了低投入的现代多样性生产技术。这种方法将生态原则和本地资源结合起来管理耕作系统,为小农提供一种使环境安全且可支付的方法在边缘地区扩大生产力。 
 
These agroecological alternatives can solve the agricultural problems
that GM crops claim to solve, but do so in a much more socially
equitable and environmentally harmonious manner [3].
  这些农业生态选择可以解决转基因农作物声称可以解决的农业问题,但是其方式却更能体现社会公正、环境和谐〔3〕。 
 
There are countless studies as well as scientific research papers
documenting the successes and benefits of sustainable agricultural
approaches, including those of organic farming, which have been
reviewed recently by the FAO [133] and ISIS [134].
  有无数的科学研究论文记录了可持续农业方法包括有机农业的成功与好处,最近FAO和ISIS也进行了回顾〔134〕。 
 
We summarise the evidence on some of the benefits of agroecology,
sustainable agriculture and organic farming for the environment
and health, as well as for food security and the social well-being of
farmers and local communities. It makes the case for a comprehensive
shift to these sustainable agriculture approaches in place of GM crops.
  我们总结了农业生态学、可持续农业和有机耕作对环境和健康及粮食安全和农民及本地社会的社会幸福带来利益的证据。为从转基因农业全面转移到此种可持续农业方法提供了条件。 
 

Box 4
  花边文字4
Sustainable agriculture
  可持续农业 
.Makes best use of nature’s goods and services by integrating
natural, regenerative processes e.g., nutrient cycling, nitrogen
fixation, soil regeneration and natural enemies of pests.
通过融入自然、再生进程,即营养物循环、固氮、土壤再生和害虫天敌等来最佳利用自然商品和服务。

.Minimises non-renewable inputs (pesticides and fertilisers) that
damage the environment or harm human health.
使致使环境或人体健康受害的非再生投入(杀虫剂和肥料)最小化。 

.Relies on the knowledge and skills of farmers, improving their
self-reliance.
依靠农民的知识和技巧改善他们自力更生的能力。 

.Promotes and protects social capital - people’s capacities to
work together to solve problems.
促进和保护社会资本(人民的资本),共同解决问题。 

.Depends on locally-adapted practices to innovate in the face of
uncertainty.
面对不稳定,采用本地适用的实践来创新。 

.Is multifunctional and contributes to public goods, such as
clean water, wildlife, carbon sequestration in soils, flood
protection and landscape quality.
 是多功能的,并对公益,如洁净水、野外生物、土壤中的碳封存、防洪和地貌品质等做贡献。

Fifteen
Higher or Comparable Productivity & Yields
  十五、更高或相当的生产力和产量

A closer look at ‘yields’
  深入了解“产量” 

Organic agriculture is often criticised for having lower yields compared
to conventional monoculture. While that may be the case in industrialised
countries, such comparisons are misleading because they discount
the costs of conventional monoculture in degraded land, water,
biodiversity and other ecological services on which sustainable food
production depends [133].
  有机农业常常受到产量比常规单一栽培低的批评。虽然这在工业化国家可能是如此,但是,这种比较是一种误导,因为他们没有计算常规单一栽培的一些成本,如退化的土地、水、生物及其它可持续粮食生产所依赖的生态服务〔133〕。 

And merely looking at yields for single crops - as critics often do misses
other indicators of sustainability and higher actual productivity
per unit area, particularly with agroecological systems that often have a
diverse mixture of crops, trees and animals together on the land [135]
(see ‘Efficient, Profitable Production’). It is often possible to obtain the
highest yield of a single crop by planting it alone - in a monoculture. But
while a monoculture may allow for a high yield of one crop, it produces
nothing else of use to the farmer [136].
  仅仅只看单一农作物的产量(正如批评者常常指出的那样)会遗漏其他可持续发展的指标和后者每单位土地事实上更高的生产力,尤其是在农业生态学系统中,常常有多种混合的农作物、树木和动物共存在土地上〔135〕(参考“有效、有利的生产”一节)。单独种植某种单一的农作物(单一栽培)而获得最大产量是可能的。但是,尽管单一栽培可能会使某种单一作物的产量较高,但是却不会给农民带来任何其他可利用的东西〔136〕。  

In any case, because of the damage done by conventional farming,
a transition period is usually required to restore the land for the full
benefits of sustainable farming. After the system is restored, comparable
or higher yields are obtained. With low-input, traditional agriculture,
conversion to sustainable approaches is normally accompanied by
immediately increased yields.
  任何情况下,常规农业带来的损害都需要一个过渡时期来恢复土地,以便能让可持续农业充分发挥优势。在系统恢复后,就可获得相当或更高的生产力。只须很少的投入,传统农业就可以转换为可持续方法,通常可立即增加产量。 
 
In fact, just reducing average farm size in most countries would
stimulate increases in production far beyond the most optimistic biotech
industry projections for GM crops. Small farms are more productive,
more efficient, and contribute more to economic development than the
large farms characteristic of conventional monoculture [136]. Small
farmers are also better stewards of natural resources.
  事实上,就是减少大多数国家农场的平均规模也会刺激产量增加远远超过最乐观的生物技术工业计划-转基因农作物带来的产量增加。小农场的生产力将比以常规单一栽培为特点的大农场更高、更有效,为经济发展做出更多的贡献〔136〕。同时小农也是自然资源更好的服务者。 
 
Research from around the world shows that smaller farms are
from two to ten times more productive per hectare than larger farms,
which tend to be inefficient, extensive monocultures. Yield increases
are achieved by using technological approaches based on agroecological
principles that emphasize diversity, synergy, recycling and integration;
and social processes that emphasize community participation and
empowerment. As average farm sizes are usually in the larger, more
inefficient range, genuine land reform offers an opportunity to boost
production while lessening poverty.
  世界各地的研究显示,小农场每公顷的生产力是大农场的2-10倍,后者趋向于无效率的广泛单一栽培。农业生态学原理强调多样化、循环和集成,以这些原理及强调社区参与和授权的社会进程为基础的技术方法可使产量增加。由于平均农场规模通常更大、更无效率,因此真正的土地改革可以提供促进生产力,同时减少贫困的机会。 
 
Outstanding successes in developing countries
  发展中国家的突出成就 

The success of sustainable agriculture has been concretely demonstrated
in a review of 208 projects and initiatives from 52 countries
[130]. Some 8.98 million farmers have adopted sustainable agriculture
practices on 28.92 million hectares in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
  对52个国家208个项目和行动的回顾具体地显示了可持续农业的成就〔130〕。在非洲、亚洲和拉美国家约898万农民在2892万公顷的土地上实践了可持续农业方法。 
 
Reliable data on yield changes in 89 projects show that farmers
have achieved substantial increases in food production per hectare,
about 50-100% for rainfed crops, though considerably greater in a few
cases, and 5-10% for irrigated crops (though generally starting from a
higher absolute yield base). These projects included both certified and
non-certified organic systems, and integrated as well as near-organic
systems. In all cases where reliable data were available, there were
increases in per hectare productivity for food crops and maintenance of
existing yields for fibre [133].
  可靠的产量资料在89个项目中都有变化,这显示农民每公顷的粮食产量有了实质增加,雨林作物增加了约50-100%,一些情况下增加比例还更大,灌溉作物增加了5-10%(通常还是以较高的绝对产量为起点)。这些项目不仅包括了认証、非认証有机系统,还包括了接近有机耕作的系统。在所有获得可靠资料的案例中,每公顷粮食生产力都有所增加,而现行纤维制品产量则得以维持〔133〕。 
 
Some specific examples of increased yields are as follows:
  产量增加的特殊案例如下:  

.Soil and water conservation in the drylands of Burkina Faso has
transformed formerly degraded lands. The average family has
shifted from a cereal deficit of 644 kg per year (equivalent to
6.5 months of food shortage) to producing an annual surplus of
153 kg.
布基纳法索旱地的水土保持已经正式使退化土地发生了转变。平均每户的谷类产量从每年644公斤的赤字(相当于6.5个月的粮食短缺)转为每年153公斤的盈余。 

.Through the Cheha Integrated Rural Development Project in
Ethiopia, some 12 500 households have adopted sustainable
agriculture, resulting in a 60% increase in crop yields.
埃塞俄比亚的Cheha农村综合发展计划中有约12,5000户家庭采用了可持续农业,使作物产量增加了60%。

.In Madagascar, a system of rice intensification has improved rice
yields from some 2 t/ha to 5, 10 or 15 t/ha, without recourse to
purchased inputs of pesticides or fertilisers.
在马达加斯加,一种稻米强化系统使稻米产量从2吨/公顷提高到5,10或15吨/公顷,并没有购买杀虫剂或肥料。 
 
.In Sri Lanka, some 55 000 households on about 33 000 ha have
adopted sustainable agriculture, with substantial reductions in
insecticide use. Yields have increased by 12-44% for rice and 744%
for vegetables.
在斯里兰卡,约55000户家庭在33000公顷土地上采用了可持续农业,实际杀虫剂使用减少。稻米产量增加了12-44%,蔬菜产量增加了7-44%。 
 
.45 000 families in Honduras and Guatemala have increased
crop yields from 400-600 kg/ha to 2 000-2 500 kg/ha using green
manures, cover crops, contour grass strips, in-row tillage, rock
bunds and animal manures.
洪都拉斯和危地马拉有45000户家庭通过绿肥、覆盖作物、等高植草、成排耕耘、石堤和厩肥等使农作物的产量从400-600公斤/公顷增加到2000-2500公斤/公顷。 
 
.The states of Santa Caterina, Paraná and Rio Grande do Sol in
southern Brazil have focused on soil and water conservation
using contour grass barriers, contour ploughing and green
manures. Maize yields have risen by 67% from 3 to 5 tonne/ha,
and soybeans by 68% from 2.8 to 4.7 t/ha.
巴西南部的圣卡塔林纳、巴拉那及南里奥格兰德州采用等高植草屏障、等高耕种和绿肥等使水土得以保持。玉米产量增加了67%,从每公顷3吨增加到5吨,而大豆产量增加了68%,从每公顷2.8吨增加到4.7吨。 
 
.The high mountain regions of Bolivia are some of the most
difficult areas in the world for growing crops. Despite this,
farmers have increased potato yields by three fold, particularly by
using green manures to enrich the soil.
玻利维亚的高山地区是世界种植农作物最难的地区之一。尽管如此,农民还是使马铃薯的产量增加了三倍,尤其通过绿肥使土壤肥力得到提高。 
 
Other case studies of organic and agroecological practices show
dramatic increases in yields as well as benefits to soil quality, reduction
in pests and diseases and general improvement in taste and nutrition
al content [131]. For example:
  其他一些有机和农业生态学做法的研究显示产量和土壤质量大幅提高,而害虫和疾病则减少,产品味道和营养成分也有所改善。比如: 

.In Brazil, use of green manures and cover crops increased
maize yields by 20-250%.
在巴西,使用绿肥和覆盖作物使玉米产量增加了20-250%。 
 

.In Tigray, Ethiopia, yields of crops from composted plots were
3-5 times higher than those treated only with chemicals.
在埃塞俄比亚的提格雷地区,堆肥区农作物产量比仅仅用化学品治理的土地产量高3-5倍。 
 
.Yield increases of 175% are reported from farms in Nepal
adopting agroecological practices.
 尼泊尔采用了农业生态学做法后据称农场产量增加了175%。 
 
.In Peru, restoration of traditional Incan terracing has led to
increases of 150% for a range of upland crops. Farmers are able
to produce bumper crops despite floods, droughts and the lethal
frosts common at altitudes of nearly 4 000 meters [135].
在秘鲁,恢复传统印加梯田使一系列高地作物产量增加了150%。尽管有洪水、干旱和在近4000米海拔仍十分普通的致命霜冻,农民还是能大丰收〔135〕。 
 
.Projects in Senegal involving 2 000 farmers promoted stall-fed
livestock, composting systems, green manures, water harvesting
systems and rock phosphate. Millet and peanut yields increased
dramatically, by 75-195% and 75-165%, respectively. Because
the soils have greater water retaining capacity, yield fluctuations
are less pronounced between high and low rainfall years.
塞内加尔有2000名农民介入的项目推动在厩中养肥牲畜、堆肥系统、绿肥、径怜蓄系统和使用磷酸石。稷及花生产量分别大幅增加了75-195%和75-165%。由于土壤含水能力更强,在雨量多和少的年份产量波动并不大。 
 
.In Santa Catarina, Brazil, focus has been on soil and water
conservation, using contour grass barriers, contour ploughing
and green manures. Some 60 different crop species, leguminous
and non-leguminous, have been inter-cropped or planted during
fallow periods. These have had major impact on yields, soil
quality, levels of biological activity and water-retaining capacity.
Maizeandsoybean yields have increasedby66%.
巴西圣卡塔林纳州,注意力主要集中在水土保持,采用了等高植草屏障、等高耕种、绿肥等措施。约60种不同的豆科和非豆科农作物被交叉种植或在休耕期种植。这些对产量、土壤质量、生物活动水平和水土保持能力等带来重大影响。玉米和大豆的产量增加了66%。 
 

.In Honduras, soil conservation practices and organic fertilisers
have tripled or quadrupled yields.
在洪都拉斯,土壤保持的做法和有机肥使产量翻了三倍或四倍。 
 

Planting the mucuna bean has improved crop yields on steep,
easily eroded hillsides with depleted soils in Honduras [137]. Farmers
first plant mucuna, which produces vigorous growth that suppresses
weeds. When the beans are cut down, maize is planted in the resulting
mulch. Subsequently, beans and maize are grown together. Very quickly,
as the soil improves, yields are doubled, even tripled (see ‘Better
Soils’). The reason - mucuna produces lots of organic material, creating
rich, friable soils. It also produces its own fertiliser, fixing atmospheric
nitrogen (N) and storing it in the ground for other plants.
  在洪都拉斯,种植黎豆改善了陡坡的产量,而陡坡很容易因为土壤贫化而使山坡受到侵蚀〔137〕。农民首先种植黎豆。这种植物有很强的生命力,可压制杂草的生长。当黎豆割下后,在其覆盖地上再种植玉米。之后,黎豆和玉米共同生长。很快,由于土壤改善,产量翻了两倍,甚至三倍(参考“更肥沃的土壤”一节),究其原因是因为黎豆产生了很多有机物质,使土壤更肥沃、更脆。它还产生自己的肥料,固定大气中的氮,将其储存在土地中供其他植物使用。 
 

This simple technology has also been adopted in Nicaragua,
where more than 1 000 peasants recovered degraded land in the San
Juan watershed in just one year. These farmers have decreased the
use of chemical fertilisers from 1 900 to 400 kilograms per hectare
while increasing yields from 700 to 2 000 kilograms per hectare. Their
production costs are about 22% lower than that for farmers using
chemical fertilisers and monocultures [135].
  尼加拉瓜也采用了这种简单的技术,约有1000名农民在1年内即使圣胡安分水岭退化的土地得到恢复。这些农民每公顷使用的化肥从1900公斤减少到400公斤,而产量却从每公顷700公斤增加到2000公斤。他们的生产成本比使用化肥和单一栽培的农民的成本低22%〔135〕。 
 
Phosphorus (P) is the most important nutrient (after N) that is most
frequently deficient in soils of tropical Africa. Unlike N, P cannot get into
the soil by biological fixation. Therefore, the availability of P from
organic and inorganic sources is essential to maximise and sustain
high crop yield potential.
  磷(P)是继氮(N)之后最重要的营养物质,后者在热带非洲土壤中通常十分缺乏。与氮不一样的是,磷不能通过生物固定到土壤中。因此,从有机和无机资源中获得磷对使作物产量保持较高和最大化十分重要。 
 
Studies in western Kenya compared the impact of organic and
inorganic fertilisers [138]. The scientists concluded that reasonable
maize yields could be achieved in smallholder systems if adequate
amounts of high quality organic materials were used as P sources.
  在肯尼亚西部进行的研究比较了有机和无机肥料的影响〔138〕。科学家得出结论,认为如果有充足的高品质有机物质作为磷使用,则可在小农体系中实现合理的玉米产量。 
 
Comparisons in industrialised countries
 工业国家的情况比较 
Organic farming also compares favourably against conventional monoculture
in industrialised countries. A review of scientifically replicated
research results from seven different US universities and data from two
research centres over 10 years shows that yields from organic systems
and conventional monoculture are comparible [139].
  有机耕作在工业国家与常规单一栽培相比也有很多优势。对10年来美国7所大学进行的反复研究及两个研究中心的数据进行科学的回顾后发现,有机系统的产量与传统的单一栽培相当〔139〕。  
 
.Corn: With 69 total cropping seasons, organic yields were 94%
of conventionally produced corn.
    玉米:在69个充分耕种的季节中,有机产量是常规生产的玉米产量的94%。 
 

.Soybeans: Data from five states with 55 growing seasons
showed organic yields were 94% of conventional yields.
  大豆:5个州关于55个种植季节的数据显示有机产量是常规产量的94%。 
 

.Wheat: Two institutions with 16 cropping years showed that
organic wheat produced 97% of the conventional yields.
  小麦:两个有16年种植经验的机构显示,有机小麦是常规产量的97%。 
 

.Tomatoes: 14 years of comparative research on tomatoes
showed no yield differences.
  番茄:对番茄的14年比较研究显示产量没有差别。
 
Vasilikiotis reviewed recent studies comparing the productivity of
organic practices to conventional agriculture [140], including the
Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) and Rodale studies
discussed below, and concluded that “organic farming methods can
produce higher yields than conventional methods.” Furthermore, “a
worldwide conversion to organic has the potential to increase food production
levels - not to mention reversing the degradation of agricultural
soils - and increase soil fertility and health.”
  瓦希利科维提斯曾回顾了近来有关比较有机农业与常规农业生产力的研究〔140〕,包括下面将讨论可持续农业耕作系统(SAFS)和的罗代尔研究,他得出结论,“有机耕作方法可以比常规方法的产量更高。”此外,“世界范围内转用有机方法可能增加粮食生产的水平(更不用说恢复农业土壤的退化)且增加土壤肥力和健康。” 
 
Results from the first 15 years of a long-term, large-scale experiment
carried out by the Rodale Institute showed that after a transition
period of four years, crops grown under organic systems (animal- and
legume-based) yielded as much as and sometimes better than conventional
crops [141]. Moreover, organic systems out-produced the conventional system
when conditions were less than optimal, for example during drought (see
‘Better Soils’).
  罗代尔研究站进行的为期15年的长期大规模实验结果显示,经过4年的过渡期后,有机系统下生长的农作物(以动物和豆类为基础)产量与常规产量相当,有时甚至更高。此外,如果条件不是处于最佳状态,比如在干旱季节,有机系统还比常规系统的产量高(参考“更肥沃的土壤”一节)。 
 
Initial lower yields were attributed partly to inadequate availability
of N, the time taken for soil microbial activity to stabilise (soils generally
contained enough total N but not yet in a usable form) and heavier
weed growth. These could be addressed by appropriate management
and given time for the system to adjust to the shift to organic farming.
  最初的低产量部分是由于氮不足,土壤代谢活动稳定需要时间(土壤通常含有足够的总氮,但是还不处于可用形式)和杂草生长茂盛。这些可以通过适当的管理和让系统有一定的时间调整适应有机生产来解决。 
 
A four-year study, part of the larger, longer-term SAFS project at
the University of California, Davis, compared conventional and alternative
farming systems for tomatoes [142]. Results indicated that organic
and low-input production gave comparable yields to conventional systems.
N availability was the most important yield-limiting factor in
organic systems, but could be addressed by appropriate management.
Additional N, when associated with high carbon inputs, built up soil
organic matter, enhancing long-term fertility. Eventually, soil organic
matter levels stabilised, requiring less N input.
  加州大学的戴维斯在更长、更大的SAFS项目一部分中为期4年的研究中比较了常规系统和替代耕作系统种植番茄的情况〔142〕。结果显示,低投入和有机生产与常规方法得到的产量相当。有机系统中,氮的可用性是产量有限的一个最重要的因素,但是可通过适当的管理来解决。如果投入很多的碳,多余的氮会使土壤有机物堆积,提高长期的肥力。最后,土壤有机物水平稳定,需要的氮也就减少。 
 
Results from the first eight years of the SAFS project showed that
the organic and low-input systems had yields comparable to the conventional
systems in all crops tested - tomato, safflower, corn and bean
- and, in some instances, the yields were higher than conventional systems
[143]. Tomato yields in the organic system were lower in the first
three years, but then caught up with the conventional system, overtaking
it in the last year of the experiment (80 t/ha compared to 68 t/ha in
1996). Both organic and low-input systems increased soil organic carbon
content and stored nutrients, both critical for long-term soil fertility.
As soil organic matter levels stabilised during the last two years of the
experiment, resulting in more N availability, higher yields of organic
crops were observed. The organic systems were found to be more profitable
in both corn and tomato, mainly due to higher price premiums.
  SAFS项目头8年的结果显示,所有测试的农作物(番茄、红花、玉米、大豆、)中,低投入和有机系统与常规系统的产量相当,一些情况下比传统系统的高〔143〕。有机系统中番茄的产量在头三年较低,但是之后就赶上了常规系统,在实验的最后1年则超过了传统系统(80吨/公顷,而1996年为68吨/公顷)。有机系统和低投入系统都使土壤有机碳含量增加,并储存了营养物质,而这两者对土壤长期肥力都十分重要。在实验的最后两年,当土壤有机物质水平稳定后,有更多的氮可以使用,有机作物的产量也增加。有机系统还被发现在玉米和番茄种植中更能赚钱,主要是因为价格较好。 
 
Another experiment compared organic and conventional potatoes
and sweet corn over three years [144]. No differences in yield and vitamin
C content of potatoes were found. While one variety of conventional
corn out-produced the organic, there was no difference between
conventional and organic in the yield of another variety, or in vitamin C
or E contents of corn kernels. The results suggested that long-term
application of composts produces higher soil fertility and comparable
plant growth.
  另一项比较有机和常规马铃薯及甜玉米的实验进行了三年〔144〕。发现产量和维生素C的含量并没有区别。虽然常规玉米产量的一种比有机的产量高,但是另一种的产量或玉米仁维生素C和E的含量,两种系统却没有区别。结果显示,长期运用堆肥可使土壤肥力更高,而植物生长则相当。

Sixteen
Better Soils
  十六、更肥沃的土壤

Soil conservation
  土壤保持
 
Most sustainable agricultural practices reduce soil erosion and improve
soil physical structure, organic matter content, water-holding capacity
and nutrient balances. Soil fertility is maintained on existing lands and
restored on degraded lands.
  大多数可持续农业做法都可减少土壤侵蚀,改善土壤的物理结构、有机物含量,含水能力和营养平衡,从而使现行土地的土壤肥力得以维持,而退化的土地得到恢复。 
 
A powerful example is that of farmers along the Sahara's edge, in
Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Burkina Faso and Kenya, farming productively
without destroying soils, even in dryland areas. Integrated farming,
mixed cropping and traditional soil and water conservation methods are
increasing per capita food production several fold [145, 146].
  一个有力的例子是阿尔及利亚、尼日尔、布基纳法索、肯尼亚等沿着沙哈拉边缘的农民甚至在干地中也可以有效地耕作,不会毁坏土壤。集成耕作,将耕作与传统的水土保持混合使用可使人均粮食产量增加好几倍〔145,146〕。 
 
Sustainable agricultural approaches help conserve and improve
the farmers’ most precious resource - the topsoil. To counter the problems
of hardening, nutrient loss and erosion, organic farmers in the
South are using trees, shrubs and legumes to stabilise and feed soil,
dung and compost to provide nutrients, and terracing or check dams to
prevent erosion and conserve groundwater [131].
  可持续农业方法帮助了保持和改善农民最珍贵的资源-表土层。为了对抗土壤变硬、营养丧失、侵蚀等问题,南方国家的有机农民使用树、灌木和豆类来稳定和养肥土壤,用粪和堆肥来提供营养,而用梯田或谷坊来防止侵蚀,保持地下水〔131〕。 
 
Restoring soil fertility
  恢复土壤肥力 

Planting mucuna beans in Latin America has restored soil fertility on
depleted soils [137]. Mucuna produces 100 tonnes of organic material
per hectare, creating rich, friable soils in a few years. It produces its
own fertiliser, fixing atmospheric N and storing it in the ground for use
by other plants. As the soil improves, yields are doubled, even tripled.
  在拉美种植黎豆已经使贫化的土壤恢复了肥力〔137〕。每公顷黎豆可产生100吨的有机物质,使土壤在几年内变得肥而脆。它还产生自己的肥料,固定大气中的氮,将其储存在土地中供其他植物使用。随着土地的改善,产量也翻倍,甚至翻了三倍。 

One of the longest running agricultural trials on record (more than
150 years) is the Broadbalk experiment at Rothamsted Experimental
Station. The trials compare a manure-based fertiliser farming system to
a synthetic chemical fertiliser system. Wheat yields are on average
slightly higher in organically fertilised plots than in plots receiving chemical
fertilisers. More importantly, soil fertility, measured as soil organic
matter and nitrogen levels, increased by 120% over 150 years in the
organic plots, compared with only a 20% increase in chemically fertilised
plots [147].
  记录在案的最长的连续农田试验是罗森斯特农业试验站进行的Braodbalk试验。该试验把以粪肥为基础的肥料耕作系统与合成化肥系统进行了比较。在有机肥料的试区中小麦的平均产量要比使用化肥的高。更重要的是,在150年的时间里,以土壤有机物质和含氮水平来测量的土壤肥力在有机试区中提高了120%,而化肥试区中却只提高了20%[147]。 
 

Another study compared ecological characteristics and productivity
of 20 commercial farms in California [148]. Tomato yields were quite
similar in organic and conventional farms. Insect pest damage was also
comparable. Significant differences were found in soil health indicators
such as N mineralisation potential and microbial abundance and diversity,
which were higher in the organic farms. N mineralisation potential
was three times greater in organic compared to conventional fields. The
organic fields also had 28% more organic carbon. The increased soil
health resulted in considerably lower disease incidence. Severity of the
most prevalent disease in the study, tomato corky root disease, was
significantly lower in the organic farms.
  另一项研究比较了加州20家商业农场的生态特点和生产力〔148〕。在有机和常规农场中,西红柿的产量十分相似。害虫损害也相当。发现的最大不同是土壤健康指标,如氮矿化的可能性、微生物的多样性及丰富程度,这在有机农场中指标都更高。氮矿化的可能性在有机土地中比常规土地高三倍。有机土壤中含有的有机碳也多28%。土壤健康增强使疾病事件发生率十分低。研究中最普遍的疾病-番茄软根病在有机农场中要低很多。 
 
Improving soil ecology
  改善土壤生态 

The world’s longest running experiment comparing organic and conventional
farming pronounced the former a success [149, 150]. The 21year
Swiss study found that soils nourished with manure were more
fertile and produced more crops for a given input of nitrogen or other
fertiliser.
  世界比较有机和常规耕作的最长的连续试验宣称前者胜利〔149,150〕。瑞士进行了21年的研究发现,用粪肥营养的土地更肥沃,如果投入的氮或其他肥料相同,可生产更多的农作物。 
 
The biggest bonus was improved soil quality under organic cultivation.
Organic soils had up to 3.2 times as much biomass and abundance
of earthworms, twice as many arthropods (important predators
and indicators of soil fertility) and 40% more mycorrhizal fungi colonising
plant roots. Mycorrhizal fungi help roots obtain more nutrients and
water from the soil [151]. The increased diversity of microbial communities
in organic soils transformed carbon from organic debris into biomass
at lower energy costs, building up a higher microbial biomass.
Hence a more diverse microbial community is more efficient in resource
utilisation. The enhanced soil fertility and higher biodiversity in organic
soils is thought to reduce dependency on external inputs and provide
long-term environmental benefits.
  最大的奖励是在有机培养中使土壤质量改善。有机土壤的生物数量和蚯蚓数量多3.2倍,节肢动物多2倍,垦殖植物根的根菌,真菌也多40%。菌根真菌可帮助根从土壤中获得更多的营养物质和水。微生物群落多样性的增强使碳以较低的能量成本从有机物残体转移到微生物中,使微生物数量不断增加。因此,微生物群落较多则使资源利用更有效。有机土壤中肥力的提高和生物多样性的改善被认为可以减少对外界投入的依赖,提供长期对环境的好处。 
 
Field experiments conducted at three organic and three conventional
vegetable farms in 1996-1997 examined the effects of synthetic
fertilisers and alternative soil amendments, including compost [152].
Propagule densities of Trichoderma species (beneficial soil fungi that
are biological control agents of plant-pathogenic fungi) and thermophilic
micro-organisms (a major constituent of which was Actinomycetes, which
suppresses Phytophthora) were greater in organic soils. In contrast,
 densities of Phytophthora and Pythium (both plant pathogens) were
 lower in organic soils.
  1996-1997年对三块有机和三块常规蔬菜农场进行的野外试验中检查了合成化肥和替代的土壤改善物,包括堆肥〔152〕。木霉属种类(有益土壤真菌,是植物病原真菌的生物控制剂)和适温微生物(是放射菌类的主要要素,而放射菌类可压制蚜虫类)的繁殖浓度在有机土壤中更大。比较而言,蚜虫类和腐霉属的密度在有机土壤中则要低。 
 

While the study recorded increased enteric bacteria in organic
soils, the scientists stressed that this was not a problem, as survival
rates in soil are minimal. (Critics of organic farming disingenuously
point to the possible health effects of using manure. But untreated
manure is not allowed in certified organic agriculture, and treated
manure (known widely as compost) is safe - this is what is used in
organic farming. Unlike conventional regimes (where untreated manure
might be used), organic certification bodies inspect farms to ensure
standards are met [153].)
  虽然研究中记录有机土壤中肠道菌群增加,但是科学家强调,这不是一个问题,因为他们在土壤中的存活率是最小的。(有机耕作批评者阴险地指出了使用粪肥可能带来的健康影响。但是未经处理的粪肥在认証的有机农业中是不能使用的,而处理过的粪肥(大家所知的堆肥)则是安全的,而这就是在有机农业中使用的。与常规机制不一样(可能使用未经处理的粪肥),有机认証机构将检查农场,确保符合标准〔153〕)。 
 

Few significant differences in yields were observed between soils
with alternative amendments and those with synthetic fertilisers,
regardless of production system. In 1997, when all growers planted
tomatoes, the yields were higher on farms with a history of organic production,
regardless of soil amendment type, due to the benefits of long-
term organic amendments. Mineral concentrations were higher in
organic soils, and soil quality in conventional farms was significantly
improved by organic fertiliser. The researchers concluded, “the argument
[of critics] that organic farming is equivalent to low yield farming
is not supported by our data” (p.158).
  不管使用什幺生产系统,使用替代的土壤改善物与合成肥料的土壤在产量方面并没有观察到有很大的区别。1997年,当所有种植者种植番茄时,不论使用了何种类型的改善物,有有机生产历史的农场产量都较高,因为有机改善物带来了长期的利益。在有机土壤中,矿物集中度也高些,而常规农场中土壤的质量可通过有机肥料得到大幅改善。研究总结说,“我们的数据不支持〔批评者〕认为有机耕作等于低产量种植的论点“(158页)。 
 
Overall improved soil quality, averting crop failure during drought
  土壤质量整体改善,避免农作物在干旱时无收成
 
The 15-year study carried out by the Rodale Institute compared three
maize/soybean agroecosystems [141, 154, 155]. One was a conventional
system using mineral N fertiliser and pesticides. The other two
systems were managed organically. One was manure-based, where
grasses and legumes, grown as part of a crop rotation, were fed to cattle.
The manure provided N for maize production. The other system did
not have livestock but leguminous cover crops were incorporated into
soil as a source of N.
  罗代尔研究站进行的为期15年的试验对三种玉米/大豆农业生态系统进行了比较〔141,154,155〕。一种是使用矿物氮肥料和杀虫剂的常规系统。另两种系统则被有机管理。一种是以粪肥为基础,在这种系统中,作为轮作一部分的草类和豆类被用来饲养牲畜。粪肥则为玉米生产提高氮。另一种系统中虽然没有牲畜,但是豆类则覆盖农作物,融入土壤,成为氮的资源。 
 
Organic techniques were found to significantly improve soil quality,
as measured by structure, total soil organic matter (a measure of soil
fertility) and biological activity [141]. The improved soil structure created
a better root-zone environment for growing plants and allowed the
soil to better absorb and retain moisture. Apart from the benefit during
low-rainfall periods, it reduced the potential for erosion in severe
storms.
  通过测量结构、总体土壤有机物质(土壤肥力量度标准)和生物活动,发现有机技术可以大幅改善土壤质量〔141〕。改善的土壤结构可为生长植物创造一个更好的根区环境,让土壤更好地吸收和保持水分。除了在雨量少时可以受益外,还可减少严重雷雨时可能带来泥土流失。 
  

Organic soils showed a higher level of microbial activity and a
greater diversity of micro-organisms. Such long-term changes in the
soil community could promote plant health and might positively affect
the way nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are made available to
plants and cycled in the soil.
  有机土壤的微生物活动水平更高,微生物的多样性也更大。土壤群落的此种长期变化可促进植物健康,且可能正面影响诸如碳和氮这样的营养物质提供给植物和在土壤中循环的方式。 
 
Amazingly, 10-year-average maize yields differed by less than 1%
among the three systems, which were nearly equally profitable [154,
155]. The two organic systems showed increasing levels of available N,
while N levels declined in the conventional system. This indicates that
the organic systems are more sustainable, in terms of productivity, over
the long-term [141].
  令人奇怪的是,玉米10年的平均产量差异在三种系统中不足1%,获利性几乎是相等的〔154,155〕。两种有机系统中氮的可用度增加,而在常规系统中氮的水平却有所下降。这显示,从长期来看,就生产力来说,有机系统更具有持续性〔141〕。 
 
The soybean production systems were also highly productive,
achieving 40 bushels/acre. In 1999, during one of the worst droughts
on record, yields of organic soybeans were 30 bushels/acre, compared
to only 16 bushels/acre from conventionally grown soybeans. Not only
did organic practices encourage the soil to hold moisture more efficiently
than conventionally managed soil, the higher organic matter
content also made organic soil less compact so that roots could penetrate
more deeply to find moisture.
  大豆生产系统的生产力也很高,达到40蒲式耳/公顷。1999年,在记录的最糟糕的一次灾害中,有机大豆的产量为30蒲式耳/公顷,而传统耕作的大豆仅仅是16蒲式耳/公顷。不仅仅是有机做法使土壤可以比传统管理的土壤更有效地保持水分,而且更高的有机物质含量还使有机土壤受到的影响更小,从而使根能更深地穿透来找到水分。 
 
The results highlighted the benefits to soil quality organic farming
brings, and its potential to avert crop failures. “Our trials show that
improving the quality of the soil through organic practices can mean the
difference between a harvest or hardship in times of drought”, said Jeff
Moyer, Farm Manager at Rodale Institute [156].
  结果突出了有机耕作给土壤质量带来的好处,可能避免庄稼没有收成。罗代尔研究站的农业经理,杰夫·莫耶谈到“我们的试验显示,通过有机做法改善土壤质量意味域在干旱时期有收获或遭遇困难的差别”。 
 

Seventeen
Cleaner Environment
  十七、更清洁的环境

Less chemical input, less leaching and run-off
化学品投入更少、过滤更少、流走之物更少
Sustainable agriculture systems that use no, or little, chemical pesticides
or herbicides are clearly a benefit to the environment (see next
section). Conventional farming systems are moreover often associated
with problems such as nitrate leaching and groundwater pollution.
Application of P fertilisers in excess of plant needs results in accumulation
of available P in topsoils, and increased losses to surface water.
Water eutrophication is one of the starkest results of N and P pollution.
The high nutrient concentrations stimulate algal blooms, which
block sunlight, causing aquatic vegetation to die and in the process
destroying valuable habitat, food and shelter for aquatic life. When the
algae die and decompose, oxygen is used up, to the detriment of
aquatic life.
没有使用或使用很少的化学杀虫剂或除草剂的可持续农业系统明显可让环境受益。此外,常规的耕作系统还常常与诸如硝酸盐浸出和地下水污染之类的问题有关。磷肥的运用超过植物的需求将导致磷在土表层堆积,增加表面水的流失。水的营养性生长过度是氮和磷污染最严重的结果之一。高养分浓度可刺激藻花,而藻花会阻碍阳光,导致水生植物群落死亡,且在该进程中毁坏水生生物有价值的栖息地、食品和庇护所。当藻类死亡和腐烂后,氧气被用完,给水生生物带来损害。 
 
Four farming systems - organic, low-input, conventional four-year
rotation and conventional two-year rotation - were evaluated for tomatoes
and corn from 1994 to 1998 in California's Sacramento Valley
[157]. The organic and low-input systems showed 112% and 36%
greater potentially mineralisable N pools than the conventional systems,
respectively. However, as they used cover-crops, there was a
slower, more continuous release of mineral N throughout the growing
season.
  1994-1998年间对加州沙加缅度谷用四种农业系统(有机、低投入、常规四季轮作和常规两年轮作)种植西红柿和稻米的情况进行了评估。有机和低投入系统显示比常规系统的潜在矿化氮池分别高112%和36%。而当他们使用覆盖作物时,在整个生长季节矿物氮的释放更慢,更连续。 
 
In contrast, conventional systems supplied mineral N in intervals
from synthetic fertilisers, and N mineralisation rates were 100% greater
than in the organic and 28% greater than in the low-input system. This
implied a greater likelihood of N leaching and associated pollution problems
in conventional systems.
  比较而言,常规系统能够提供的矿物氮则是通过合成肥料间歇提供,氮矿物化率也比有机系统高100%,比低投入系统高28%。这暗示着常规系统中氮浸出的可能性更大并产生相关的污染问题。 
 
Average tomato and corn yields for the five-year period were not
significantly different among the farming systems. The researchers
concluded that the lower potential risk of N leaching from lower N mineralisation
rates in the organic and low-input farming systems appear
to improve agricultural sustainability and environmental quality while
maintaining similar crop yields to conventional systems.
  西红柿和玉米在5年内的平均产量在这些种植系统中都没有什幺大的差别。研究员总结说,有机和低投入种植系统低氮矿化率导致氮浸出率可能性低的情况似乎可改善农业的可持续性和环境质量,同时保持与常规系统相当的农作物产量。 
 
The 21-year Swiss study [149, 150] also assessed the extent to
which organic farming practices would affect the accumulation of total
and available P in soil, compared to conventional practices [158]. Soil
samples were taken from a non-fertilised control, two conventionally
cultivated treatments and two organically cultivated treatments.
  瑞士21年的研究〔149,150〕还评估了有机耕作影响土壤中总氮和可用氮的范围,与常规耕作进行了比较〔158〕。土壤样本是从非肥料控制中提取,两种通过常规培养治理,两种通过有机培养治理。 
 
Average annual P budgets of both organic farming systems were
negative for each single rotation period and for the 21 years of field
experimentation. This indicated that P removal by harvested products
exceeded the P input by fertilisers. The conventionally cultivated soil,
receiving mineral fertilisers and farmyard manure, showed a positive
budget over all three rotations. Furthermore, the inorganic P availability
in the topsoil decreased markedly in all treatments during the field
trial except in the conventional treatment. Thus the potential for P pollution
from organic systems was reduced.
  两种有机耕作系统的年平均磷预算在每个单一的轮作期间在21年的现场试验中都是负值。这显示,通过收获物去除的磷超过了肥料投入的磷。接受矿肥和农家肥的常规培养的土壤则显示在所有三个轮作期间磷预算都是正值。此外,除常规治理外,在现场试验中所有被治理土壤表层的无机磷可用性都明显减少。因此,有机系统磷污染的可能性减少。 
 

The 15-year trials carried out by the Rodale Institute showed that
the conventional system had greater environmental impacts - 60%
more nitrate leached into groundwater over a five-year period than in
the organic systems [154, 155]. Soils in the conventional system were
also relatively high in water-soluble carbon, hence vulnerable to leaching
out. The better water infiltration rates of the organic systems made
them less prone to erosion and less likely to contribute to water pollution
from surface runoff.
  罗代尔研究站进行的15年试验显示,常规系统对环境的影响更大,5年内浸入地下水中的硝酸盐比有机系统多60%〔154,155〕。常规系统中的土壤还相对含有较高的水溶性碳,因此更容易被排除。有机系统更高的水过滤率使其更不易于侵蚀,更不可能从表面流走之物致使水污染。 
 

Eighteen
Reduced Pesticides & No Increase in Pests
  十八、杀虫剂减少,害虫并未增加

Less pesticides
  使用的杀虫剂更少 

Organic farming prohibits routine pesticide application. According to the
Soil Association, in the UK, about 430 synthetic pesticide active ingredients
are allowed in non-organic farming, compared to seven in organic
farming. The pesticides used in organic farming may only be used as
the last resort for pest control when other methods fail. They are either
natural or simple chemicals that degrade rapidly. Three of these require
further authorisation for use.
  有机耕作禁止日常使用杀虫剂。根据英国土壤协会的说法,在非有机耕作中允许使用约430种合成杀虫剂活性成分,而有机耕作中只有7种。有机耕作中使用的杀虫剂仅能作为其他方法都失败时控制虫害的最后手段。这些东西要幺是自然的,或者是会迅速分解的简单化学品。其中三种使用需要进一步核准。 
 
Many sustainable agriculture projects report large reductions in
pesticide use after adopting integrated pest management. In Vietnam,
farmers have cut the number of sprays from 3.4 to 1.0 per season, in
Sri Lanka from 2.9 to 0.5 per season, and in Indonesia from 2.9 to 1.1
per season. Overall, in South-east Asia, 100 000 small rice farmers
involved in integrated pest management substantially increased yields
while eliminating pesticides [130].
  很多可持续农业项目报告在采用了集成害虫管理后杀虫剂使用大幅减少。在越南,农民将每季使用喷剂的数量从3.4降至1.0,而在斯里兰卡,则从每季2.9降至0.5,印尼从每季2.9降至1.1。总体来说,在东南亚约有100000名使用集成害虫管理系统的稻米小农实质上增加了产量,同时却取消了杀虫剂的使用[130]。 
 
Pest control without pesticides, no crop losses
  不用杀虫剂控制害虫,但农作物产量没有减少 

Because organic procedures exclude synthetic pesticides, critics claim
that losses due to pests would rise. However, research on Californian
tomato production contradicted this claim [159]. There was no significant
difference in levels of pest damage in 18 commercial farms, half of
which were certified organic systems and half, conventional operations.
Arthropod biodiversity was on average one-third greater in organic
farms than in conventional farms. There was no significant difference
between the two in herbivore (pests) abundance.
  由于有机流程排除了合成杀虫剂,因此批评者声称因害虫而导致的损失将增加。然而,对加州西红柿生产的研究却与这个声明相反〔159〕。在18个商业农场中,害虫损害并没有重大差别,其中一半是认証的有机系统,另一半是常规运作。节肢动物的生物多样性在有机农场也比在常规农场的多三分之一。两种农场在草食动物(害虫)多样性方面没有重大差别。 
 
However, the natural enemies of pests were more abundant in
organic farms, with greater species richness of all functional groups
(herbivores, predators, parasitoids). Thus, any particular pest species
in organic farms would be associated with a greater variety of herbivores
(i.e. would be diluted) and subject to control by a wider variety
and greater abundance of potential parasitoids and predators.
  但是,在有机农场中,害虫的自然天敌则更为丰富,所有功能组(草食动物、食肉动物、拟寄生物)的物种都更为丰富。因此,在有机农场中任何特殊的害虫物种都有更多的食草动物与之相关(即被冲淡),并受到更广泛和更丰富的潜在食肉动物和拟寄生物的控制。 
 
At the same time, research shows that pest control is achievable
without pesticides, actually reversing crop losses. In East Africa, maize
and sorghum face two major pests - stem borer and Striga, a parasitic
plant. Field margins are planted with 'trap crops' that attract stem borer,
such as Napier grass and Sudan grass. Napier grass is a local weed
whose odour attracts stem borer. Pests are lured away from the crop
into a trap - the grass produces a sticky substance that kills stem borer
larvae [160]. The crops are inter-planted with molasses grass
(Desmodium uncinatum) and two legumes: silverleaf and greenleaf.
The legumes bind N, enriching the soil. Desmodium also repels stem
borers and Striga.
  同时,研究显示,不使用杀虫剂也可对害虫进行控制,而事实上不会导致农作物减产。在东亚,玉米和高粱属的植物面临两种主要的害虫-三化螟虫和独脚金,后者是一种寄生植物。田地的边缘种植了吸引三化螟虫的“陷阱作物”,如紫狼尾草和苏丹草。紫狼尾草是本地的一种杂草,其气味可以吸引三化螟虫。害虫被从作物吸引过来,进入到陷阱中(草产生一种粘性物质,可杀死三化螟虫的幼虫)〔160〕。农作物下面还种植了糖蜜草(西班牙三叶草)和两种豆类:银叶和绿叶山蚂蝗。两种豆类可以固氮,使土壤肥沃,而三叶草则可以驱除三化螟虫和独脚金。 
 
In Bangladesh, a project began in 1995 to promote non-chemical
means of pest control in rice, that relies on natural enemies and on the
ability of the rice plant to compensate for insect damage. There have
been no negative impacts on yields [161]. On the contrary, farmers
using no insecticide consistently enjoy higher yields than those using
insecticide. As project participants also modify other practices besides
foregoing insecticides, it cannot be said that the yield increase is due
entirely to the absence of insecticides. It does show, however, that
insecticides are not needed to obtain yield increases. Project participants
enjoy higher net returns than insecticide users: the 1998 average
net return for participants was Tk 5 373 (US$ 107) per farmer per season
compared to Tk 3 443 (US$ 69) for insecticide users.
  在孟加拉国,1995年开始了一个项目,推动在稻米中采用非化学方法进行害虫控制,主要依靠自然天敌和稻米植物补偿昆虫损害的能力。对产量并没有负面影响〔161〕。相反,持续不使用杀虫剂的农民却比使用杀虫剂的农民的产量更高。由于项目参与者除了不使用杀虫剂外还改变了其他一些做法,因此不能说产量增加完全是因为没有使用杀虫剂的缘故。但是这却说明,杀虫剂不是增加产量所必须的。项目参与者的纯收益比杀虫剂使用者的高:1998年参与者每人每季的纯收益为TK5373(107美元),而杀虫剂使用者的为Tk3443(69美元)。 
 
Other benefits of avoiding pesticides
  避免使用杀虫剂的其他好处 
Besides the obvious benefit of not using harmful pesticides, Korean
researchers have reported that avoiding pesticides in paddy fields
encourages the muddy loach fish, which effectively control the mosquitoes
that spread malaria and Japanese encephalitis [162]. Fields in
which no insecticides were used had a richer variety of insect life.
However, the fish are voracious predators of the mosquito larvae.
  根据韩国研究员的报告,不使用有害杀虫剂除了带来明显的好处外,在稻田中避免使用杀虫剂还可鼓励泥鳅鱼的生长,而泥鳅鱼可有效地控制传播疟疾和日本脑炎的蚊子〔162〕。没有使用杀虫剂的土地中昆虫的种类更丰富。而鱼则是蚊子幼虫贪婪的掠夺者。 
 
In Japan, an innovative organic farmer has pioneered a rice growing
system that turns weeds and pests into resources for raising ducks
[163]. The ducks eat insect pests and the golden snail that attack rice
plants, and also eat the seeds and seedlings of weeds. By using their
feet to dig up the weed seedlings, the ducks aerate the water and provide
mechanical stimulation to make the rice stalks strong and fertile.
This practice has been adopted by about 10 000 farmers in Japan, and
by farmers in South Korea, Vietnam, the Philippines, Laos, Cambodia,
Thailand and Malaysia. Many farmers increased their yield 20 to 50%
or more in the first year. One farmer in Laos increased his income
three-fold.
　　在日本，一名具有创新精神的有机农民试验了一种稻米种植系统，将杂草和害虫转化为饲养鸭子的资源〔163〕。鸭子以害虫和袭击稻米植物的金蜗牛为食物，同时还吃杂草的种子和苗。鸭子用脚来挖掘杂草苗，而在水中又可提供机械刺激，使稻米茎更硬、更肥沃。这个做法在日本、南韩、越南、菲律宾、老挝、柬埔寨、泰国和马来西亚约有10000农民在采用。第一年，很多农民的产量都增加了20-50％或更多。一名老挝的农民收入则增加了三倍。　　
　　

Systems such as these, which are characteristic of sustainable
agricultural approaches, make use of the complex interactions of different
species, and show how important the relationship between biodiversity
and agriculture is (see next chapter).
　　诸如此类可持续农业方法系统利用了不同物种之间复杂的交互作用关系，显示了生物多样性与农业之间的关系是多幺重要（参看下一节）。　　
　　

The health benefits of avoiding pesticides are discussed briefly in
‘Organics for Health’.
　　避免杀虫剂带来的健康利益将在“有机有益健康”一节中简单讨论。

Nineteen
Supporting Biodiversity & Using Diversity
　　十九、支持生物多样性，利用多样性

Agricultural biodiversity crucial for food security
　　农业生物多样性对粮食安全十分重要　　

Maintaining agricultural biodiversity is vital to long-term food security.
Pimbert reviewed the multiple functions of agricultural biodiversity and
its importance for rural livelihoods [164]. Agricultural biodiversity contributes
to food and livelihood security, efficient production, environmental
sustainability and rural development; it regenerates local food
systems and rural economies. Rural people have dynamic and complex
livelihoods, which usually rely on a diversity of plant and animal
species, both wild and domesticated. Diversity within species (i.e. farmers’
varieties or landraces) is also remarkable among the species
domesticated for crop and livestock production, and results from rural
people's innovation. Such agricultural diversity is vital insurance
against crop and livestock disease outbreaks, and improves the long-
term resilience of rural livelihoods to adverse trends or shocks.
Agricultural biodiversity is increasingly threatened by the adoption of
high-yielding, uniform cultivars and varieties in ‘modern’ monoculture.
　　保持农业生物多样性对长期的粮食安全十分重要。潘贝尔曾回顾了农业生物多样性的多重功能及其对农村生活的重要性〔164〕。农业生物多样性对粮食和生活安全、有效的生产、环境可持续性及农村发展都有贡献。农村人口的生活是动态且复杂的，通常依靠植物和动物的多样性，不仅包括野外的，也包括驯养的动植物的多样性。在物种范围内的多样性（即农民的品种或本地品种）在农作物驯养物种和牲畜生产中也十分显着，且源自农村人口的创新。此种农业多样性是对抗农作物和牲畜疾病爆发、改善农村生活长期适应力来抵抗不利趋势或振荡的重要保障。农业生物多样性正不断受到高产量、统一栽培和各种“现代”单一栽培的威胁。　　
　　

The proceedings of a 2002 FAO meeting on 'Biodiversity and the
Ecosystem Approach in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries’ highlighted
the inter-connectedness of biodiversity and agriculture [165]. It gave
specific examples of how farmers’ innovations enhance biodiversity,
and the importance of biodiversity for agriculture. One paper reviewed
16 case studies from 10 countries in Asia, Latin America, Europe and
Africa, showing how organic farming increases the diversity of genetic
resources for food and agriculture [166]. In all cases, there is a close
relationship between organic systems and the maintenance of biodiversity,
and improvement in the farmers’ socio-economic conditions.
　　2002年粮农组织进行了关于“农、林、渔业生物多样性与生态系统法”的会议，突出了生物多样性与农业之间的交叉连通性〔165〕。会上给出了农民的创新如何提高生物多样性的特殊例子，并指出了生物多样性对农业的重要性。一份报告回顾了亚洲、拉美、欧洲和非洲10国家的16个案例，显示有机耕作是如何增加粮食和农业基因资源的多样性的〔166〕。在所有的案例中，有机系统与生物多样性的维护之间都有密切关系，有机系统与改善农民的社会经济条件也有密切关系。　　
　　
Case studies of a community-based organic farming system in
Bangladesh, the ladang cultivation of organic spices in Indonesia and
organic coffee production in Mexico show how traditional and community-
based management can rehabilitate abandoned and degraded
agroecosystems. These polyculture systems are characterised by highly
diversified ecosystems and agricultural biodiversity, which provide
not only food, but also further community services. Case studies of
organic cocoa farming in Mexico and organic, naturally pigmented cotton
in Peru are examples of successful organic agriculture that have
contributed to in situ conservation and sustainable use in centres of
diversity, while providing economic benefits for local communities.
Traditional and under-utilised species and varieties in Peru (gluten-free
quinoa), Italy (Saraceno grain, Zolfino bean, spelt wheat) and
Indonesia (local varieties of rice) have been rescued from extinction,
thanks to organic agriculture. Four case studies, from Germany, Italy,
South Africa and Brazil, illustrate how organic farming has restored
many traditional varieties and breeds that are better adapted to local
ecological conditions and are resistant to disease. As the authors conclude,
organic agriculture contributes to in situ conservation, restoration
and maintenance of agricultural biodiversity.
　　对孟加拉国以社区为基础的有机耕作系统、印尼有机物种干田（ladang）培养及墨西哥有机咖啡生产的案例研究显示了传统和社区为基础的管理是如何恢复废弃和退化的农业生态系统的。这些多种养殖系统的特点是生物系统和农业生物高度多样化，不仅可以提供食物，而且可以提供进一步的社区服务。对墨西哥有机可可豆耕作及秘鲁有机自然色素咖啡的研究就是成功的有机农业的例子，不仅为保留原来的产品做出了贡献，而且对以多样性为中心可持续地使用，为本地社区带来生态利益做出了贡献。秘鲁（不含麸质的奎奴亚藜）、意大利（saraceno谷、Zolfino豆、斯卑尔脱小麦）及印尼（本地大米品种）传统、未充分利用的物种和品种也通过有机农业从消失的边缘挽救回来。四个案例研究，即德国、意大利、南非和巴西的研究显示了有机耕作是如何恢复了很多可以更好地适应当地生态条件、能对抗疾病的传统品种的。正如们总结的那样，有机农业对保持原有的、恢复和保持农业的生物多样性做出了贡献。　　
　　

Conserving and supporting biodiversity
　　保持和支持生物多样性　　

Sustainable agriculture plays a further important role in conserving natural
biodiversity. Organic farms often exhibit greater natural biodiversity
than conventional farms, with more trees, a wider diversity of crops
and many different natural predators, which control pests and help prevent
disease [131].
　　可持续农业在保持自然生物多样性方面发挥着进一步作用。有机农场常常在自然生物多样性方面比常规农场更高，有更多的树木、更多的农作物种类和很多不同的天然食肉动物，可控制害虫，帮助防止疾病〔131〕。　　
　　
Research carried out in Colombia and Mexico found 90% fewer
bird species in sun-grown coffee plantations as opposed to shade-
grown organic coffee, which mimics the forests' natural habitat [167].
Shade cultivation is recommended by organic standards as it
enhances soil fertility, controls pests and diseases and expands crop
production options. Another study by the British Trust for Ornithology
found significantly higher breeding densities of skylark (an endangered
species) on organic farms, compared to conventional farms. Floral
diversity, which has also been threatened by the increasing use of herbicides
in agricultural production, stands to benefit from organic systems
that do not allow the use of chemical herbicides. Studies in
Greece and England show that floral diversity and abundance is indeed
higher in organic than in conventional systems. Other studies show
increased invertebrate diversity and abundance in organic systems.
　　哥伦比亚和墨西哥进行的研究发现，在阳光咖啡种植地中鸟类物种只有在阴凉有机咖啡种植地中鸟类物种的90％，后者模仿森林的的自然的生活环境〔167〕。遮光培育是根据有机标准建议的，因为这可以提高土壤肥力，控制害虫和疾病，扩展农作物生产的选择。英国鸟类学协会进行的另一项研究发现，有机农场与常规农场相比，饲养云雀的密度更大。植物群的密度在农业生产中因除草剂使用的不断增加而受到威胁，而在不允许使用化学除草剂的有机系统中却受益。希腊和英国的研究显示，植物群密度和丰富度事实上在有机系统中比在传统系统中高。其他研究显示，有机系统中，无脊椎动物多样性和丰富度也不断增加。　　
　　

A report from the Soil Association [168] comprehensively reviewed
the findings of nine studies (seven from the UK, two from Denmark),
and summarised the key findings of fourteen additional studies, on the
biodiversity supported by organic farming. The report concluded that
organic farming in the lowlands supports a much higher level of biodiversity
(both abundance and diversity of species) than conventional
farming systems, including species that have significantly declined.
This was particularly true for wild plants in arable fields; birds and
breeding skylarks; invertebrates including arthropods that comprise
bird food; non-pest butterflies; and spiders. Organic farms also showed
significant decrease in pest aphids and no change in pest butterflies.
Habitat quality was more favourable on organic farms, both in terms of
field boundaries and crop habitats.
　　土壤协会的一份报告〔168〕综合地回顾了九项研究发现（七项来自英国，两项来自丹麦），并总结了额外14项关于有机耕作对生物多样性支持的研究。报告总结说，低地的有机耕作支持的生物多样性（物种的丰富度和多样性），包括那些大幅减少的物种比常规耕作系统的多。耕地中的野生植物、鸟类和饲养云雀、包括组成鸟类食物的节肢动物在内的无脊椎动物、非害虫蝴蝶及蜘蛛等尤其如此。有机农场还显示了有害蚜虫大幅减少，而有害蝴蝶则没有变化。无论是油田边界还是作物栖息地，有机农场的环境都更有利。　　
　　

Many beneficial practices were identified with organic agriculture,
such as crop rotations with grass leys, mixed spring and autumn sowing,
more permanent pasture, no application of herbicides or synthetic
pesticides, and use of green manure. These practices can reverse the
trends in the decline of biodiversity associated with conventional farming.
Generally, the improvements in biodiversity were found across the
cropped areas as well as at the field margins. The report also suggested
that major benefits are likely in the uplands.
The reduced or non-use of agrochemicals in organic and sustainable
farming will also allow wild plant species to flourish, among
which are an increasing number of herbs used in traditional medicines.
The World Health Organization estimates that 75-80% of the
world’s population use plant medicines either in part or entirely for
health care. Some of these wild plant species are facing extinction,
and concerted effort is needed for their local conservation, while
ensuring that harvesting from the wild is sustainable and continues to
contribute to local people’s livelihood [169]. Wild plants and animals
are also part of an important repertoire of food and medicines for many
farming communities [164].
　　有机农业中已经识别出很多有益做法，比如农作物与草地轮作，将春季和秋季播种混合，更持久的放牧，不使用除草剂或合成杀虫剂、使用绿肥等。这些做法可以挽回因常规耕作而带来的生物多样性下降的趋势。通常，生物多样性的改善还在跨作物地区及田地边缘发现。报告还表示，主要的好处是对高地的好处。有机和可持续耕作减少或不使用农用化学品还让野生植物品种繁荣，增加了在常规药物中使用的草药的数量。世界卫生组织估计，世界人口中75-80％部分或完全使用草药用于保健。一些野生植物种类正面临消失，需要采取具体措施来保持这些植物，同时确保野生收成是可持续的，能不断为本地人民的生活做出贡献〔169〕。野生植物和动物还是很多农业社区食物和药物的保留品种〔164〕。　　
　　

Diversity increases agricultural productivity
　　多样性增加了农业的生产力　
　
Biodiversity is an important and integral part of sustainable agricultural
approaches. Each species in an agroecosystem is part of a web of ecological
relationships connected by flows of energy and materials. In this
sense, the different components of agrobiodiversity are multifunctional,
and contribute to the resilience of production systems while providing
environmental services, although some species may play key driving
roles [164]. The environmental services provided by agricultural biodiversity
include soil organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling,
biomass production and yield efficiency, soil and water conservation,
pest control, pollination and dispersal, biodiversity conservation, climate
functions, water cycling, and influence on landscape structure.
　　多样性是可持续农业方法重要且不可分割的一部分。农业生态系统中每个物种都是能量和物质流连接起的生态关系网的一部分。从这点来说，农业生态多样性中不同的部分都是多功能的，为生产系统的恢复做出了贡献，同时提供了环境服务，而一些物种可能发挥驱动作用〔164〕。农业生物多样性提供的环境服务包括土壤有机物质分解、营养循环、生物数量增加和产量效率、水土保持、虫害控制、授粉与扩散、生物多样性保持、气候功能、水循环和对地貌结构的影响等。　　
　　

Empirical evidence from a study conducted since 1994 shows that
biodiverse ecosystems are two to three times more productive than
monocultures [170, 171]. In experimental plots, both aboveground and
total biomass increased significantly with species number. The high
diversity plots were fairly immune to the invasion and growth of weeds,
but this was not so for monocultures and low diversity plots. Thus, biodiverse
systems are more productive, and less prone to weeds as well!
　　自1994年进行的一项研究实验证据显示，生物多样化的生态系统比单一栽培的生产力高二至三倍。在试验地中，地面和总计生物数量都大幅增加。生物多样性高的试验地相对地可免受侵害，杂草也较少，但是单一栽培和生物多样性低的试验地却不是如此。因此，生物多样性的系统生产力更高，也较为不易受到杂草侵害！　　
　　

Proving with stunning results that planting a diversity of crops is
beneficial (compared with monocultures), thousands of Chinese rice
farmers have doubled yields and nearly eliminated its most devastating
disease without using chemicals or spending more [172, 173].
Scientists worked together with farmers in Yunnan, who implemented a
simple practice that radically restricted the rice blast fungus that
destroys millions of tons of rice and costs farmers several billion dollars
in losses each year.
　　鉴于种植多样性农作物有益（与单一栽培相比）这样令人惊奇的结果，中国上千稻米农民的产量已经翻倍，没有使用任何化学品或花费更多的钱就几乎消除了最具破坏性的疾病〔172，173〕。科学家与云南的农民一起工作，采取了简单的做法却极大地限制了每年毁坏上百万大米、导致农民损失数十亿美元的水稻稻瘟真菌。　　
　　

Instead of planting large stands of a single type of rice, as is typical,
farmers planted a mixture of two varieties: a standard hybrid rice
that does not usually succumb to rice blast and a much more valuable
glutinous or ‘sticky’ rice known to be very susceptible. The genetically
diverse rice crops were planted in all the rice fields in five townships in
1998 (812 hectares), and ten townships in 1999 (3 342 hectares).
　　与常规大量种植单一类型的水稻相反，农民将两种混合种植：通常不屈服于水稻稻瘟的标准杂交稻和一种易受感染、但更有价值的糯米。1998年，有5个镇（812公顷）的所有稻田都种植了遗传基因不同的水稻作物，到1999年时达到了10个镇（3342公顷）。　　
　　

Disease-susceptible varieties planted with resistant varieties had
89% greater yield, and blast was 94% less severe than when grown in
monoculture. Both glutinous and hybrid rice showed decreased infection.
The hypothesis is fairly clear for glutinous rice. If a variety is susceptible
to a disease, the more concentrated those susceptible types
are, the more easily disease spreads. It is less likely to spread when
susceptible plants are grown among plants resistant to the disease (i.e.
a dilution effect occurs). The glutinous rice plants, which rise above the
shorter hybrid rice, also enjoyed sunnier, warmer and drier conditions
that discouraged fungal growth. Disease reduction in the hybrid variety
may be due to the taller glutinous rice blocking the airborne spores of
rice blast, and to greater induced resistance (due to diverse fields supporting
diverse pathogens with no single dominant strain). The gross
value per hectare of the mixtures was 14% greater than hybrid monocultures
and 40% greater than glutinous monocultures.
　　与耐性品种共同种植让易受疾病感染的品种产量增加了89％，而稻瘟则比单一栽培时轻94％。杂交水稻和糯米的感染率都下降了。这一假设对糯米来说十分清晰。如果某一品种易于受到疾病侵袭，这种易受侵袭的品种越集中，则更容易传播疾病。当易受感染的品种在有耐性的植物中种植时，传播的机率就会小一些（即出现稀释效应）。生长在短杂交水稻上的糯米植物也可享受到更多阳光、更温暖、更干燥的环境，而这样的环境则可阻碍真菌生长。杂交品种疾病的减少可能是因为更高的糯米阻碍了水稻稻瘟的空气孢子，更多地引发了耐性（因为多样化的田地支持不同的病菌，没有一种占主导地位）。混合种植使每公顷的总值比单一杂交栽培高14％，比单一糯米栽培高40％。　　
　　

In Cuba, integrated farming systems or polycultures, such as cassava-
beans-maize, cassava-tomato-maize, and sweet potato-maize
have 1.45 to 2.82 times greater productivity than monocultures [135]. In
addition, legumes improve the physical and chemical characteristics of
soil and effectively break the cycle of insect-pest infestations.
　　在古巴，集成种植系统，或者多种作物栽培系统，比如木薯属植物－大豆－玉米，木薯属植物－西红柿－玉米和甘薯－玉米的生产力比单一栽培高1.45-2.82倍〔135〕。此外，豆类还改善了土壤的物理和化学特点，有效地打破了昆虫－害虫横行的循环。　　
　　

Integrating vegetables into rice farming systems in Bangladesh by
planting them on dikes has not affected rice yields, despite the area lost
to dike crops [161]. Instead, the vegetables provided families with more
nutrients. The surplus was shared with neighbours, friends and relatives
or sold, providing an added value of 14%.
　　在孟加拉国，通过将蔬菜种植在堤坝上使其与玉米耕作系统集成，尽管该地区不再为堤坝作物所占有，但并没有影响稻谷产量〔161〕。相反，蔬菜为这些群落提供了更多营养。盈余被邻居、朋友和亲戚分享，或被销售，提供了额外14％的价值。　　

Integrating fish into flooded rice systems also caused no significant
decline in rice yields, and in some cases increased yields. Net
returns from selling the fish averaged Tk 7 354 (US$ 147) per farmer
per season, more than the returns from rice. As with vegetables, rice-
fish farmers ate fish more frequently and donated much of it to their
social networks.
　　将鱼与灌溉水稻系统集成也不会使水稻产量下降，在一些情况下还增加了产量。每名农户每季销售鱼的净收入为Tk7354（147美元），比水稻的收入高。而种植蔬菜，水稻－鱼的农民则可经常吃鱼，并将大部分捐赠给社会网络。　　
　　

Soil biodiversity also plays a crucial role in promoting sustainable
and productive agriculture, and organic practices help enhance this
[174]. Organic mulch, applied judiciously to degraded and crusted soil
surfaces in the Sahelian region of Burkina Faso, triggered termite activity,
promoting the recovery and rehabilitation of degraded soils.
Termites feeding on or transporting surface-applied mulch improved
soil structure and water infiltration, enhancing nutrient release into the
soil. The growth and yield of cowpeas were far better on plots with termites
than on plots without. In India, organic fertilisers and vermicultured
earthworms applied in trenches between tea rows increased tea
yields by 76-239%, compared to conventional inorganic fertilisation.
Profits increased accordingly.
　　土壤生物多样性还在促进可持续和具有生产力的农业方面发挥域重要作用。有机做法可帮助提高这一点〔174〕。在布基纳法索萨赫勒地区明智地用于退化和硬结土壤表面的有机覆盖物引发了白蚁活动，促进了退化土壤的恢复。白蚁喂食或表面的覆盖物改善了土壤结构和水过滤，提高了营养物释放到土壤中。豇豆的生长和产量在有白蚁的土地上远远比没有的土地多。在印度，在茶树沟渠之间运用有机肥料和蚯蚓培殖与传统无机肥料相比，使茶叶产量增加了76-239％。利润也相应增加。　　
　　

Twenty

Environmental & Economic Sustainability
　　二十、环境与经济的可持续性

Sustainable production
　　可持续生产　　
Research published in Nature investigated the sustainability of organic,
conventional and integrated (combining both methods) apple production
systems in Washington from 1994-1999 [175, 176]. The organic
system ranked first in terms of environmental and economic sustain-
ability, the integrated system second and the conventional system last.
The indicators used were soil quality, horticultural performance,
orchard profitability, environmental quality and energy efficiency.
　　《自然》上发表的研究对华盛顿1994-1999年间有机、常规和集成（结合两种方法）苹果生产系统的可持续性进行了调查〔175，176〕。就环境和经济可持续性来说，有机系统排在第一位，综合系统排在第二，而常规系统在最后。使用的指标包括土壤质量、园艺表现、果园盈利、环境质量和能量效率等。　　
　　

Soil quality ratings in 1998 and 1999 for the organic and integrated
systems were significantly higher than for the conventional system,
due to the addition of compost and mulch. All three systems gave comparable
yields, with no observable differences in physiological disorders
or pest and disease damage. There were satisfactory levels of
nutrients for all. A consumer taste test found organic apples less tart at
harvest and sweeter than conventional apples after the apples were
stored for six months.
　　由于额外使用了堆肥和覆盖物，1998年到1999年土壤质量的等级在有机和集成系统中比常规系统高出很多。所有三个系统的产量都相当，在生理障碍或害虫和疾病损害方面没有观察到差别。所有系统的营养水平都比较满意。对消费者口味的测试发现，成熟的有机苹果较为不酸，储存了6个月后比常规苹果更甜。　　
　　

Organic apples were the most profitable due to price premiums
and quicker investment return. Despite initial lower receipts in the first
three years, due to the time taken to convert to certified organic farming,
the price premium in the next three years averaged 50% above
conventional prices. In the long term, the organic system recovered
costs faster. The study projected that the organic system would break
even after 9 years, but that the conventional system would do so only
after 15 years, and the integrated system, after 17 years.
　　鉴于溢价因素，有机苹果的利润最高，投资回报最快。尽管在最初三年最初的收成较低，但是在后三年溢价因素将使价格比传统价格高50％。长期来看，有机系统收回成本的速度更快。研究显示，有机系统甚至在9年后就可突破，而常规系统需要在15年后，而集成系统则需要在17年后。　　
　　

Environmental impact was assessed by a rating index to determine
potential adverse impacts of pesticides and fruit thinners: the
higher the rating, the greater the negative impact. The rating of the conventional
system was 6.2 times that of the organic system. Despite
higher labour needs, the organic system expended less energy on fertiliser,
weed control and biological control of pests, making it the most
energy efficient.
　　环境影响是通过决定杀虫剂和水果稀释剂潜在负面影响的等级指数来评估的，即等级越高，负面影响越大。常规系统的等级是有机系统的6.2倍。尽管有机系统所需的人工更多，但是该系统对肥料、杂草管理和害虫的生物控制的依赖更少，因此使其能量效力最高。　　
　　

Another study evaluated the financial and environmental aspects
of sustainability of organic, integrated and conventional farming systems
by applying an integrated economic-environmental accounting
framework to three farms in Tuscany, Italy [177]. In terms of financial
performance, the gross margins of steady-state organic farming systems
were higher than the corresponding conventional farming systems'
gross margins. The organic systems performed better than the
integrated and conventional systems with respect to nitrogen losses,
pesticide risk, herbaceous plant biodiversity and most other environmental
indicators. The results provided evidence that organic farming
potentially improves the efficiency of many environmental indicators as
well as is remunerative. While not fully conclusive that organic farming
is more sustainable, nonetheless, the performance of organic farming
systems was better than conventional farming systems.
　　另一项研究运用了综合的经济环境会计框架，对意大利托斯卡纳区三个农场的有机、集成和常规耕作系统可持续性在财政和环境方面的影响进行了评估〔177〕。就财政表现来看，恒稳态的有机耕作系统的毛利润比相应的常规耕作系统的毛利润高。有机系统在氮损失、杀虫剂风险、草本植物生物多样性和大多数其他环境指标方面都比集成和常规系统好。结果显示，有机耕作可改善很多环境指标的效力，也更有利。虽然还不能得出有机耕作更具持续性的结论，但是不管怎样，有机耕作系统的表现比常规耕作系统好。　　
　　

Environmentally sustainable
　　环境可持续性　
　
A Europe-wide study assessed environmental and resource use
impacts of organic farming, relative to conventional farming [178]. The
study showed that organic farming performs better than conventional
farming in relation to the majority of environmental indicators reviewed.
In no category did organic farming show a worse performance when
compared with conventional farming.
　　一项对全欧的研究评估了有机耕作相对于常规耕作对环境和资源使用的影响〔178〕。研究显示，在回顾的大多数环境指标中有机耕作比常规耕作都表现得好。有机耕作中没有一个分类显示了比常规耕作的表现差。　　
　　
For example, organic farming performed better than conventional
farming in terms of floral and faunal diversity, wildlife conservation and
habitat diversity. Organic farming also conserved soil fertility and system
stability better than conventional systems. Furthermore, the study
showed that organic farming results in lower or similar nitrate leaching
rates than integrated or conventional agriculture, and that it does not
pose any risk of ground and surface water pollution from synthetic
pesticides.
　　比如，有机耕作在植物和动物群落多样性、野生生物保护和生境多样性方面就比常规耕作好。有机耕作在土壤肥力和系统稳定性方面也比常规系统好。此外，研究还显示，有机耕作导致了氮溢出比集成或常规农业更低或相同，并没有像合成杀虫剂那样给地下和表面水带来污染风险。　　
　　

The FAO review [133] concluded, “As a final assessment, it can
be stated that well-managed organic agriculture leads to more
favourable conditions at all environmental levels” (italics added, p.62).
　　粮农组织评论〔133〕总结说，“作为一项最后评估，可以陈述说，管理良好的有机农业就所有环境水平来说，带来了更有利的条件”（斜体字补充，第62页）。　　
　　

Its assessment showed that organic matter content is usually
higher in organic soils, indicating higher fertility, stability and moisture
retention capacity, which reduce the risk of erosion and desertification.
Organic soils have significantly higher biological activity and higher
mass of micro-organisms, making for more rapid nutrient recycling and
improved soil structure.
　　这项评估显示，有机物质含量通常比较高的有机土壤显示肥力更高、更稳定、含分能力更强，这些都使侵蚀和沙漠化的风险降低。有机土壤生物活动更强，微生物数量更多，使其营养循环更快，改善了土壤结构。　　
　　

The review found that organic agriculture poses no risk of water
pollution through synthetic pesticides and that nitrate-leaching rates per
hectare are significantly lower compared to conventional systems. In
terms of energy use, organic agriculture performs better than conventional
(see next section).
　　评论发现，有机农业不会引发合成杀虫剂对水带来的污染，每公顷的氮浸出率也比常规系统低很多。就能量使用来说，有机农业表现得比常规农业更好（参看下一节）。　　
　　

The review established that genetic resources, including insects
and micro-organisms, all increase when land is farmed organically,
whilst wild flora and fauna within and around organic farms are more
diverse and abundant. By offering food resources and shelter for beneficial
arthropods and birds, organic agriculture contributes to natural
pest control. It also contributes to the conservation and survival of
pollinators.
　　评论确定，当土地被有机耕作时，生成资源，包括昆虫和微生物资源都增加了，而在有机农场范围内或周围的野生植物和动物群落也更具多样性，更丰富。通过向有益的节肢动物和鸟类提供食物资源和栖息地，有机农业为自然虫害控制做出了贡献。还对传粉者的保护和生存做出了贡献。　　
　　

Twenty-One

Ameliorating Climate Change
　　二十一、改善气候变化

Energy efficient, reduced direct and indirect energy use
　　能量效率，减少了能量的直接和间接使用　　

‘Modern’ agriculture has a lot to answer for in terms of contributing to
climate change, which is by far the most daunting problem that
humankind has ever encountered. It has increased emissions of nitrous
oxide and methane, potent greenhouse gasses; it is fossil fuel energy
intensive and contributes to the loss of soil carbon to the atmosphere
[179].
　　“现代”农业就对气候变化来说应负很多责任，而气候变化是到目前为止人类曾面临的最令人害怕的问题。气候变化增加了一氧化二氮和甲烷的释放，带来强烈的温室气体；气候变化使化石燃料能量更广，使土壤碳损失到大气中〔179〕。　　
　　

Sustainable agricultural practices can provide synergistic benefit
towards ameliorating climate change. The FAO believes that organic
agriculture enables ecosystems to better adjust to the effects of climate
change and has major potential for reducing agricultural greenhouse
gas emissions [133]. Its review concluded that, “Organic agriculture
performs better than conventional agriculture on a per hectare scale,
both with respect to direct energy consumption (fuel and oil) and indirect
consumption (synthetic fertilizers and pesticides)”, with high efficiency
of energy use (p.61).
　　可持续农业做法可以为改善气候变化提供协同好处。粮农组织认为，有机农业使生态系统能更好地调整适应气候变化，最有可能减少农业温室气体的释放〔133〕。其评论总结说，“有机农业在每公顷规模直接能量消耗（燃料或油）和间接能量消耗（合成肥料和杀虫剂）方面都比常规农业表现得好”，能量使用的效率更高（第61页）。　　
　　

The Rodale Institute's trials found that energy use in the conventional
system was 200% higher than in either of the organic systems
[141]. Research in Finland showed that while organic farming used
more machine hours than conventional farming, total energy consumption
was still lowest in organic systems [180]. In conventional systems,
more than half of total energy consumed in rye production was spent
on the manufacture of pesticides.
　　罗代尔研究站的试验发现，常规系统中的能量使用比两种有机系统中的任何一种都高200％〔141〕。芬兰的研究显示，虽然有机耕作使用了比常规耕作更多的机械时间，但是总共的能量消耗在有机系统中仍然是最低的〔180〕。在常规系统中，黑麦生产总共消耗的能量中超过一半被用来花费在杀虫剂的生产上。　　
　　

Organic agriculture was more energy efficient than conventional
agriculture in apple production systems [175, 176]. Studies in Denmark
compared organic and conventional farming for milk and barley grain
production [181]. The total energy used per kilogram of milk produced
was lower in the organic than in the conventional dairy farm, while the
total energy used to grow a hectare of organic spring barley was 35%
lower than used to produce conventional spring barley on the same
area. However, organic yield was lower, thus energy used to produce
one kg of barley was only marginally lower for the organic than for the
conventional.
　　在苹果生产体系中，有机农业的能量比常规农业的能量效力要高〔175，176〕。丹麦的研究对有机和常规牛奶和大麦生产进行了比较〔181〕。每公斤牛奶使用的总计能量，在有机系统中比在常规奶牛场的低，而种植1公顷有机春季黑麦使用的总计能量比在同样大小土地上种植常规春季黑麦的要低35％。但是，有机产量更低，因此生产1公斤黑麦所使用的能量，有机的仅仅比常规的低一点。　　
　　

Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions were calculated to be 48-66%
lower per hectare in organic farming systems in Europe [133, 178], and
were attributed to the characteristics of organic agriculture, i.e., no
input of mineral N fertilisers with high energy consumption, lower use
of high energy consuming feedstuffs, lower input of mineral fertilisers
(P, K) and elimination of pesticides.
　　在欧洲，有机耕作系统中每公顷产生的二氧化碳也低48-66％，这是有机农业特点，即没有使用高能消耗的矿物氮肥料、较少使用高能消耗饲料、矿物肥料（磷、钾）和取消了杀虫剂等带来的。 　　
　　

Furthermore, because of sustainable agriculture’s focus on local
production, consumption and distribution, less energy is wasted on
transportation of products, particularly by air. According to a study carried
out in 2001, greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport
of food from a local farm to a farmer’s market were 650 times lower
than emissions associated with the average food sold in supermarkets
[cited in 179].
　　此外，由于可持续农业集中在本地生产、消耗和分销，在产品运输方面，尤其是通过空气消耗的能量更少。根据2001年进行的一项研究，粮食从本地农场运输到农民市场所产生的温室气体平均比超市里销售之粮食产生的温室气体低650倍。　　
　　

Greater carbon sequestration
　　碳封存更多　　

Soils are an important sink for atmospheric CO2, but this sink has been
increasingly depleted by conventional agricultural land use.
Sustainable agriculture approaches, however, help to counteract climate
change by restoring soil organic matter content (see ‘Better
Soils’), as these increase carbon fixation below ground. Organic matter
is restored by the addition of manures, compost, mulches and cover
crops.
　　虽然土壤是大气二氧化碳的一个重要接收器，但是这个接收器却因常规农业土地的使用而不断衰竭。然而，可持续农业方法却可通过恢复土壤有机物质含量来中和气候变化（参考“更肥沃的土壤”一节），因为这样可以增加碳在地下的固定。有机物质通过额外的粪肥、堆肥、覆盖物和间作而得到恢复。　　
　　

Pretty and Hine suggest that the 208 projects they assessed accumulated
some 55.1 million tonnes of carbon (C) [130]. The SAFS
Project found that organic C content of the soil increased in both organic
and low-input systems [143], while the study of 20 commercial farms
in California found that organic fields had 28% more organic C [148].
　　普雷蒂和海因认为，他们评估的208个项目积累了约5510万吨的碳（C）〔130〕。SAFS项目发现，土壤中有机碳含量在有机和低投入系统中都有所增加〔143〕，而对加州20家商业农场的研究发现，有机土地中含有的有机碳多28％〔148〕。　　
　　

This was also true in the 15-year study by the Rodale Institute,
where soil C levels increased in the two organic systems, but not in the
conventional system [141]. The researchers concluded that organic
systems showed significant ability to absorb and retain C, raising the
possibility that sustainable agriculture practices can help reduce the
impact of global warming.
　　这在罗代尔研究站进行的为期15年的试验中也是一样的，在他们的试验中，土壤碳的含量在两种有机系统中都增加了，但在常规系统中则没有增加〔141〕。研究员总结说，有机系统显示了极大吸收和保持碳的能力，提高了可持续农业做法可以帮助减轻全球升温的可能性。　　
　　

Less nitrous oxide emissions
　　释放更少的一氧化氮　　

The FAO also estimated that organic agriculture is likely to emit less
nitrous oxide (N2O) [133], another important greenhouse gas and also
a cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. This is due to lower N inputs;
less N from organic manure due to lower livestock densities; higher C/N
ratios of applied organic manure and less available mineral N in the soil
as a source of denitrification; and efficient uptake of mobile N in soils
due to cover crops.
　　粮农组织还估计，有机农业释放的一氧化氮（另一种温室气体，也是大气臭氧损耗的一个原因）也可能更少〔133〕。究其原因在于：投入的氮较少；牲畜的密度较小，因此从有机物质发出的氮也较少；运用到有机物质的碳/氮比率较高，作为反硝化作用来源的土壤矿物氮的存在较少；覆盖作物使土壤中移动氮被有效地摄取。　　
　　

Twenty-Two
Efficient & Profitable Production
　　二十二、有效、有盈利的生产

Productivity enhanced
　　生产力提高　　

Any yield decrease in organic agriculture is more than made up for by
its ecological and efficiency gains, and lower costs, making it a profitable
venture. The Swiss study found that input of fertiliser and energy
was reduced by 34-53% and pesticide input by 97%, whereas mean
crop yield was only 20% lower over the 21 years, indicating efficient
production and resource use [149, 150]. The organic approach was
commercially viable in the long-term, producing more food per unit of
energy or resources.
　　有机农业任何产量的减少大都是为了使生态和效率提高，成本降低，使其成为一项有盈利的事业。瑞士研究发现，21年来肥料和能量的投入减少了34-53％，而杀虫剂投入减少了97％，同时平均农作物产量却仅仅低20％，这显示生产和资源利用十分有效〔149，150〕。有机方法从长期来看在商业上是可行的，每个能量单位或资源单位生产的食品更多。　　
　　

Data show that smaller farms produce far more per unit area than
larger farms (which tend to be monocultures characteristic of conventional
farming) [136]. Though the yield per unit area of one crop may be
lower on a small farm than on a large monoculture, the total output per
unit area, often composed of more than a dozen crops and various animal
products, can be far higher. Small farms are also more efficient
than large ones in terms of land use and ‘total factor productivity’, an
averaging of the efficiency of use of all the different factors that go into
production, including land, labour, inputs, capital, etc.
　　数据显示，每个地区较小农场的生产远远比较大的农场多（后者倾向于常规耕作的单一栽培）〔136〕。虽然小农场一种农作物每单位区域的产量可能比大的单一栽培的产量低，但是每个单位区域总共的产出常常由十几种农作物和各种动物组成，因此更高。小农场在土地利用和“总因素生产力”方面比大农场更有效，后一个参数是生产中不同因素使用的平均效率，包括土地、人工、投入、资本等。　　
　　

Studies in Bolivia show that though yields are greater in chemically
fertilised and machinery-prepared potato fields, energy costs are
higher and net economic benefits lower, than where native legumes
have been used as rotational crops [135]. Surveys indicate that farmers
prefer the latter alternative system because it optimises the use of
scarce resources, labour and available capital, and is accessible to
even poor producers.
　　玻利维亚的研究显示，虽然化学施肥和机械准备的马铃薯土地的产量更高，但是能量成本也更高，纯经济效益也比使用本地豆类作为轮作物的土地更低〔135〕。调查显示，农民宁愿选择后一种替换系统，因为这个系统使稀有资源、人力和可用资本得到优化利用，甚至对贫穷的生产者来说也可以利用。 　　
　　

Lower costs, higher profits
　　成本更低、利润更高　
　
Two trials in Minnesota evaluated a two-year corn-soybean rotation and
a four-year corn-soybean-oat/alfalfa-alfalfa crop rotation under four
management strategies: zero, low, high and organic inputs [182].
Averaged across a seven-year time frame from 1993-1999, corn and
soybean yields in the four-year organic strategy were 91 and 93%, and
81 and 84%, respectively, of the two-year high input strategy. However,
oat yields were similar with either the four-year organic or high input
strategies. Alfalfa yields in the four-year organic strategy were 92% that
of the four-year high input strategy in one trial, and in the second trial,
yields were the same.
　　明尼苏达州的两项试验对玉米－大豆作物两年轮作和玉米、大豆、燕麦/紫花苜蓿－紫花苜蓿作物四年轮作在四种管理战略（零投入、低投入、高投入和有机投入）下的情况进行了评估〔182〕。从1993－1999的7年时间内，玉米和大豆产量在四年有机战略和两年高投入战略中分别为91％和93％， 81％和84％。但是，四年有机或高投入战略中，燕麦的产量则相当。紫花苜蓿的产量在一块试验田的四年有机战略中为四年高投入战略的92％，另一块地则相同。　　
　　

Despite the slight reduction in corn and soybean yields, the organic
systems had lower production costs than the high input strategy.
Consequently, net returns, without considering organic price premiums,
for the two strategies were equivalent. The scientists suggested that
organic production systems could be competitive with conventional
ones.
　　尽管玉米和大豆产量稍微减少，但是有机战略的生产成本比高投入战略低。相应地，在不考虑有机溢价的情况下，两种战略的纯收入是相等的。科学家认为有机生产系统能与常规系统竞争。　　
　　

A comprehensive review of the many comparison studies of grain
and soybean production conducted by six US Midwestern universities
since 1978 found that in general, organic production was equivalent to,
and in some cases better than, conventional [183]. Organic systems
had higher yields than conventional systems that featured continuous
crop production (i.e. no crop rotations), and equal or lower yields than
conventional systems that included crop rotations. In drier climates,
organic systems had higher yields, as they were more drought-hardy
than conventional systems.
　　对美国中西部6所大学自1978年以来对谷物和大豆生产的比较研究进行全面回顾后发现，一般上，有机生产都与常规生产相当，在一些情况下还比后者更高〔183〕。有机系统的产量比以连续作物生产为特点（即没有轮作）的常规系统的产量高，与采用了作物轮作的常规系统的产量相等或较低。在较干的气候下，有机系统的产量较高，因为它们比常规系统更能抗干旱。　　
　　

The organic cropping systems were always more profitable than
the most common conventional systems if organic price premiums
were factored in. When the higher premiums were not factored in, the
organic systems were still more productive and profitable in half the
studies. This was attributed to lower production costs and the ability of
organic systems to out-perform the conventional in drier areas, or during
drier periods. The author concluded, “organic production systems
are competitive with the most common conventional production systems”,
and suggested that, “if farmers obtain current market premiums
for organic grains and soybeans, their organic production generally
delivers higher profits than non-organic grain and soybean production”
(p.2).
　　如果把有机溢价因素考虑进来，有机耕作系统总是比最普通的常规系统利润更大。当高额的溢价未考虑时，在一半的研究中，有机系统的生产力和盈利性仍然更高。这主要归功于有机系统较低的生产成本和在较干地区或在较干时期比常规系统表现好的能力。总结说，“有机生产系统可以与最普通的常规生产系统竞争，”并建议，“如果农民从有机谷物和大豆中获得当前的市场溢价，则其有机生产通常比非有机谷物和大豆生产的利润高”（第2页）。 　　
　　

The 15-year results from the Rodale Institute showed that after a
transition period with lower yields, the organic systems were competitive
financially with the conventional system [141]. While the costs of
the transition are likely to affect a farm's overall financial picture for
some years, projected profits ranged from slightly below to substantially
above those of the conventional system, even though economic
analyses did not assume any organic price premium. The higher profits
for the organic farms came largely from higher corn yields, which
nearly doubled after the transition period. When prices or yields were
low, organic farms suffered less than the conventional and had fewer
income fluctuations, as they had a diversity of crops other than corn to
sell. Expenses on the organic farms were significantly lower than on the
conventional - the latter spent 95% more on fertilisers and pesticides.
Overall production costs on the organic farms were 26% lower.
　　罗代尔研究站进行的为期15年的研究显示，在经过一段时期较低产量的过渡后，有机系统能与常规系统在经济上进行竞争[141]。虽然过渡期的成本可能影响农民一些年份整体的经济前景，但是计划的利润也只是介于稍微低于到实质高于常规系统的产量，当然经济分析没有假设任何有机价格溢出。有机农场较高的利润很大部分来自较高的玉米产量，这在过渡期后几乎翻倍。当价格或产量较低时，有机农场比常规农场所受到的影响也较小，收入波动也不大，因为它们除了销售玉米外，有多种农作物。有机农场的成本也比常规的低很多（后者95％用在肥料和杀虫剂上）。有机农场的整体生产成本要低26％。

Twenty-Three

Improved Food Security & Benefits to Local Communities
　　二十三、粮食安全改善、本地社区受益

Increased local food production
　　本地粮食生产增加　
　
Despite adequate global food production, many still go hungry because
increased food supply does not automatically mean increased food
security. What is important is who produces the food, who has access
to the technology and knowledge to produce it, and who has the purchasing
power to acquire it [130]. Poor farmers cannot afford expensive
‘modern’ technologies that theoretically raise yields.
　　尽管全球粮食生产充足，但是很多人仍然陷入飢饿 ，因为增加的粮食供应并没有自动地意味着增加粮食安全。重要的是谁生产了粮食，谁可以使用技术和知识来生产，谁有购买力来获得〔130〕。贫穷的农民无法支付理论上可以提高产量的昂贵的“现代”技术。　　
　　

Many farmers show ‘lagging productivity’, not because they lack
‘miracle’ seeds that contain their own insecticide or tolerate massive
doses of herbicide, but because they have been displaced onto marginal,
rain-fed lands, and face structures and macroeconomic policies
that have built on historical inequalities and that are increasingly inimical
to food production by small farmers [184].
　　很多农民表现出“滞后的生产力”，不是因为他们缺乏含有自身杀虫剂或耐大量除草剂的“神奇”种子，而是因为他们被置于边缘、雨量大的土地，面临域根据历史不平等建立的结构和宏观经济政策，且这些结构和政策正不断增加小农粮食生产的初期投入〔184〕。　　
　　

As such, their agriculture is best characterised as ‘complex,
diverse and risk prone’ [185], and they have tailored agricultural technologies
to their variable but unique circumstances, in terms of local climate,
topography, soils, biodiversity, cropping systems, resources, etc.
It is these farmers, already risk-prone, who stand to be harmed most by
the risks of GM crops [184].
　　有鉴于此，其农业特点可归结节为“复杂、多样和易受风险”〔185〕，他们已经使农业技术能适应可变但独特的条件，即本地的气候、地形、土壤、生物多样性、耕作体制、资源等。正是这些易受风险的农民最多地受到了转基因农作物风险的危害〔184〕。　　

Sustainable agricultural approaches must thus allow farmers to
improve local food production with low-cost, readily available technologies
and inputs, without causing environmental damage. This was
indeed the case, as reviewed by Pretty and Hine [130]. Most sustainable
agriculture projects and initiatives reported significant increases in
household food production - some as yield improvements, some as
increases in cropping intensity or diversity of produce.
　　可持续农业方法因此必须允许农民使用低成本的可用技术和投入来改善本地的粮食生产，同时不会对环境带来破坏。这才是真正的可持续农业，如普雷蒂和海因〔130〕所回顾的一样。大多数可持续农业计划和最初的报告都极大地使家庭粮食生产产量改善（一些产量提高，一些耕作强度或生产多样性增加）。　　
　　

The evidence showed:
　　证据显示：　　
. Average food production per household increased by 1.71
tonnes per year (up 73%) for 4.42 million farmers on 3.58 million
hectares.
      442万农民在358万公顷的土地上每户每年平均粮食生产增加了1.71吨（73％）。　　

. Increase in food production was 17 tonnes per year (an
increase of 150%) for 146 000 farmers on 542 000 hectares
cultivating roots (potato, sweet potato and cassava).
146000名农民在542000公顷培植根茎（马铃薯、甘薯和木薯）上，每年粮食生产增加17吨（增加150％）。　　

. Total production increased by 150 tonnes per household (an
increase of 46%) for the larger farms in Latin America (average
size 90 hectares).
拉美较大农场（平均规模90公顷）每户总计生产增加150吨（增加46％）。　　
　　

The review found that as food supply increased, domestic con
sumption also increased, with direct health benefits, particularly for
women and children. Furthermore, 88% of the 208 projects made better
use of locally-available natural resources, and 92% improved
human capital through learning programmes. In more than half the
projects, people worked together.
　　回顾发现，随着粮食供应的增加，国内消费也增加，直接带来健康利益，尤其是为妇女和儿童带来健康利益。此外，208个项目中88％都更好地利用了本地可用自然资源，92％通过学习计划改善了人力资本。超过一半的项目中，人们都协同工作。　　

Learning from farmers
　　向农民学习　
　
Sustainable agricultural approaches recognise the value of traditional
and indigenous knowledge, and of farmers’ experience and innovation.
The importance and value of learning from farmers, and of farmer-led
participatory agricultural research, are well established in concepts
such as ‘farmer first’ [185, 186].
　　可持续农业方法认可了传统和本地知识，认可了农民的经验和创新。向农民学习的重要性和价值，农民主导参与农业研究的重要性和价值都可在“农民优先”这样的概念中体现出来〔185，186〕。　　
　　

Case studies and experiences of successful agroecological innovations
from Africa, Latin America and Asia [187] provide evidence that
low-external-input agriculture using agroecological practices could
make an important contribution to feeding the world over the next 30 to
50 years. Relying on mainly local resources and knowledge, farmers
are able to increase yields substantially, sometimes doubling or tripling
outputs.
　　非洲、拉美和亚洲的案例研究和农业生态创新的成功经验〔187〕使用农业生态学的外部低投入农业可以在未来30-50年为世界供应粮食作出重要的贡献。主要依靠本地资源和知识，农民就能够实质地增加产量，有时甚至翻两倍或三倍。　　
　　

To cite one example, in Mali's Sahelian Zone, soil and water conservation
practices and agroforestry have increased cereal yields, in
some cases from 300 kg/ha to 1 700 kg/ha, about twice the level needed
to meet basic food needs. Emphasis has also been placed on conserving
traditional varieties of seeds and biodiversity, through farmer-
based evaluation and community or local gene banks.
　　在马里萨赫勒地区有一个例子，保持水土的做法和农业森林学使谷类产量增加，一些情况下从300公斤/公顷增加到1700公斤/公顷，约是满足基本粮食需要的两倍。同时重点还放在通过农民的评估和社区或本地基因库来保持传统种子品种和生物多样性。　　

The FAO review highlights the important contributions of resource
poor farmers worldwide [133]. Non-certified organic agriculture, practiced
by millions of indigenous people, peasants and small family farms
make a significant contribution to regional food security: in Latin
America they account for more than 50% of the maize, beans, manioc
and potatoes produced; in Africa, most of the cereals, roots and tubers;
in Asia, most of the rice.
　　粮农组织的回顾突出了世界上资源贫瘠的农民所做的重要贡献〔133〕。上百万土着人、农民和小家庭农场非认証有机农业，实践了对地区粮食安全做出了重大贡献：在拉美，他们占了所生产大米、大豆、树薯和马铃薯的一半；在非洲，构成大多数谷类食品、根茎产品；在亚洲，构成大多数水稻。　　
　　
Case studies from India, Brazil, Iran, Thailand and Uganda show
how traditional knowledge, innovation and agroecological approaches
have brought numerous benefits: increased productivity, better environmental
health and soil fertility, improved biodiversity, economic benefits,
food security, enhanced social relations within communities, and
revival of traditional, sustainable agricultural practices [133].
　　印尼、巴西、伊朗、泰国和乌拉圭的案例研究显示了传统知识、创新、农业生态学方法是如何带来无数好处的：增加生产力，环境健康和土壤肥力更好，生物多样性改善，经济利益，粮食安全，提高社区内的社会关系和恢复传统、可持续农业做法等〔133〕。　　
　　
Farmers in Ethiopia are taking steps to ensure their food security
by relying on their knowledge [188]. In Ejere, farmers have reclaimed
their own varieties of local wheat, teff (an Ethiopian staple cereal) and
barley, after so-called ‘modern high-yielding varieties’ actually resulted
in lower yields and other problems. In the Butajira area, farmers are
demonstrating that it is possible to farm intensively and sustainably to
provide enough food to meet population needs. They do this by using
indigenous crops selected for resistance to diseases, drought tolerance
and many other desirable features, by intercropping and by integrating
livestock management. In Worabe, farmers are maintaining a complex,
sustainable and indigenous agricultural system that ensures food security.
The system is based on enset, a very drought resistant, multiple-
use indigenous crop.
　　埃塞俄比亚的农民正在通过依靠自己的知识采取步骤确保其粮食安全〔188〕。在Ejere地区，农民在所谓的“现代高产量品种”事实上导致低产量和其他问题后重新开垦自己的本地小麦品种-teff（埃塞俄比亚的主要谷物）和黑麦。而Butajra地区的农民则说明，广泛、可持续地提供充足的粮食来满足人口需要是可能的。他们通过使用选出本地抗病、耐干旱及其它很多有利特点的农作物，并集成农间混作和综合牲畜管理来实现。在Worabe地区，农民正在维持一种可确保粮食安全的复杂、可持续本地农业系统。该系统以Enset这种耐干旱、多用途本地农作物为基础。　　
　　

Better incomes, increased food security
　　更多收入、增加粮食安全　
　
Evidence from hundreds of grassroots development projects shows
that increasing agricultural productivity with agroecological practices
not only increases food supplies, but also increases incomes, thus
reducing poverty, increasing food access, reducing malnutrition and
improving the livelihoods of the poor [189]. Agroecological systems
lead to more stable levels of total production per unit area than high-
input systems; they give more economically favorable rates of return,
provide a return to labour and other inputs for a livelihood acceptable
to small farmers and their families. They also ensure soil protection and
conservation, and enhance agrobiodiversity [190].
　　上百基层开发项目提供的证据显示，用农业生态学方法增加农业生产力不仅可以增加粮食供应，还可以增加收入，从而减少贫困，增加粮食准入，减少营养失调、改善贫困人口的生活〔189〕。农业生态学系统使每单元区域的总计生产比高投入系统更稳定；其经济回报率更高，为劳动和其他投入提供了回报，是小农及其家庭可接受的。他们还可确保土壤保护和保持，提高农业多样性〔190〕。　　

Integrated production systems and diversified farms have helped
farmers in south-central Chile reach year-round food self-sufficiency
while rebuilding the land’s productive capacity [135]. Small, model farm
systems have been set up, consisting of polycultures and rotating
sequences of forage and food crops, forest and fruit trees, and incorporating
livestock.
　　集成生产系统和多样化农场已经帮助了智利中部和南部的农民实现全年粮食自给自足，同时重新建立其本地的生产能力〔135〕。现代农场已经建立起来，由多作物栽培、草料和粮食作物、森林树木和果树轮作组成，并集成了牲畜。　　
　　
Soil fertility improved, and no serious pest or disease problems
have appeared. Fruit trees and forage crops achieved higher than aver
age yields, and milk and egg production far exceeded that on conventional
high-input farms. For a typical family, such systems produced a
250% surplus of protein, 80 and 550% surpluses of vitamin A and C,
respectively, and a 330% surplus of calcium. If all the farm output were
sold at wholesale prices, a family could generate a monthly net income
1.5 times greater than the monthly minimum wage in Chile, while dedicating
only a few hours per week to the farm. The time freed up could
be used for other income-generating activities.
　　土壤肥力改善，开始出现没有严重害虫或疾病问题的局面。果树和草料作物比平均产量高，牛奶和鸡蛋生产远远超出了常规高投入农场的生产。对于一个典型的家庭来说，这种系统产生的蛋白质盈余250％，维生素A和C的盈余80％和550％，而钙的盈余为330％。如果所有的农产品出都以批发价出售，则智利的一个家庭每月的纯收入是月最低工资的1.5倍，而每周只需在农场中花几小时的时间。其他空闲时间则可用于其他可以带来收入的活动。　　
　　

Organic agriculture could improve income, profitability and return
on labour by removing or reducing the need for purchased inputs; by
diversification (often adding a new productive element) and optimising
productivity; by maintaining or improving on- and off-farm biodiversity,
allowing farmers to market non-cultivated crops, insects and animals;
and by sales in a premium market [191]. A case study from Senegal
showed that yields could be increased manifold, and were less variable
year on year, with consequent improvements in household food security.
Likewise, a participatory fair-trade coffee cooperative in Mexico,
which adopted organic practices, allowed smallholder coffee growers to
overcome soil degradation and low yields, and to gain access to a
speciality market.
　　有机农业通过取消或减少使用购买投入；通过多样化（常常增加新的生产元素）和优化生产；通过保持或改善农场内外的生物多样性；允许农民销售非养殖农作物、昆虫和动物；通过在溢价市场中销售等可以提高收入、盈利性和劳动回报。塞内加尔的一项案例研究显示，产量可以翻几倍，一年一年的变化不会太大，随之改善家庭粮食安全。同样，墨西哥的一项参与公平贸易咖啡合作计划也采用了有机做法，让小户咖啡种植者能克服土壤退化和低投入的困难，获得了特殊的市场准入。　　
　　

Generating money for the local economy
　　为本地经济带来收入　　

Money flows of an organic box scheme from Cusgarne Organics (UK)
showed the benefit of buying locally, to the community at large [192].
The economic analysis followed the trail of the farm box scheme
income, monitoring exactly where the money was spent, how much of
it was ‘local’ expenditure, and then tracked that money to the next layer
of spending.
　　（英国）Cusgarne Organics的一项有机盒计划显示了本地购买对社区整体带来的好处〔192〕。该计划对农业盒计划收入进行跟踪和经济分析，确切地监控了钱花在什幺地方，“本地”的成本是多少，然后追踪该笔款下一层花在哪儿。　　
　　

It estimated that for every ￡1 spent at Cusgarne Organics, ￡2.59
is generated for the local economy. In contrast, a study involving supermarket
giants Asda and Tesco found that for every ￡1 spent at a supermarket,
only ￡1.40 is generated for the local economy. The study concludes,
“The figures demonstrate that the net effect of spending at
Cusgarne Organics to the local economy is nearly double the effect of
the same amount spent with out-of-county and national businesses”
(p. 16).
　　据估计，Cusgarne Organics每消费1英镑，将给本地经济带来2.59英镑的收入。比较而言，一项有关超市收入的Asda和Tesco研究发现，超市每消费1英镑，给本地经济只带来1.40英镑的收入。研究总结说，“这些数字显示，Cusgarne Organics消费到本地经济带来的纯收益是相同数额消费到国内外业务带来的纯收益的两倍。”　　
　　

Twenty-Four
Organics for Health
　　二十四、有机食物有益健康

Less chemical residues
　　化学残留物更少
　　
A comprehensive Soil Association review of scientific research has
shown that, on average, organic food is better than non-organic food
[193]. First, it is safer, as organic farming prohibits routine pesticide and
herbicide use, so chemical residues are rarely found. In contrast, non-
organic food is likely to be contaminated with residues that often occur
in potentially dangerous combinations. The British Society for Allergy,
Environmental and Nutritional Medicine, commenting on the report,
states: “We have long believed the micronutrient deficiencies common
in our patients have their roots in the mineral-depletion of soils by intensive
agriculture, and suspect that pesticide exposures are contributing
to the alarming rise in allergies and other illnesses” (italics added).
　　土壤协会对科学研究的一份全面回顾显示，平均来看，有机食品比非有机食品更好〔193〕。首先，其更加安全，因为有机耕作禁止日常使用杀虫剂和除草剂，因此很少发现化学残留物。比较而言，非有机食品则可能常常受到现残留物的污染，这些残留物通常出现在潜在危险的混合物中。英国过敏、环保和营养药物局评论一篇报告时陈述说：“我们一直以来都认为患者中普遍存在的微量营养素缺乏的根源在于广泛的农业导致土壤中矿物质损耗，并怀疑接触杀虫剂使过敏和其他疾病令人担忧地上升”（斜体为补充）。　　

The negative effects of pesticides on health include neurotoxicity,
disruption of the endocrine system, carcinogenicity and immune system
suppression (see also ‘Herbicide Hazards’). The impacts of dietary
exposure to pesticide residues at levels typically found in and on food
are less easy to establish, but a precautionary approach is necessary.
While there are recommended safety levels for pesticides, the UK government’s
own tests have shown that average residue levels on foods
may be under-reported.
　　杀虫剂对健康的负面影响包括神经中毒、内分泌系统失调、致癌和免疫系统压制（请参考“杀虫剂危害”一节）。通过饮食接触普通量的杀虫剂残留物的影响通常发现于食物里面和表面，因此更不容易确定，然而预防方法是必要的。虽然关于杀虫剂有建议的安全水平，但是英国政府自己的检测却显示食品上的平均残留物水平可能低报了。　　
　　

Research has also suggested that pesticide exposure affects
male reproductive function, resulting in decreased fertilising ability of
the sperm and reduced fertilisation rates [194]. Correspondingly, members
of a Danish organic farmers' association, whose intake of organic
dairy products was at least 50% of total intake of dairy products, had
high sperm density [195]. In another study, sperm concentration was
43.1% higher among men eating organically produced food [196].
　　研究还显示，接触杀虫剂可影响男性的生殖功能，导致精子受精能力减弱，受精率降低〔194〕。相应地，丹麦有机农民联合会的成员摄取有机奶制品的量至少为奶制品总摄取量的50％，其精子浓度也较高〔195〕。在另一项研究中，食用有机食品的男子的精子浓度要高43.1％〔196〕。　　
　　
Children, in particular, may stand to benefit from organic food.
Scientists monitored preschool children in Seattle, Washington to
assess their exposure to organophosphorus (OP) pesticide from diet
[197]. The total dimethyl metabolite concentration was approximately
six times higher for children with conventional diets than those with
organic diets. The calculated dose estimates suggest that consumption
of organic fruits, vegetables and juice can reduce children’s exposure
levels from above to below the US Environmental Protection Agency’s
guidelines, thereby shifting exposures from a range of uncertain risk to
a range of negligible risk. The study concluded that consumption of
organic produce could be a relatively simple way for parents to reduce
children’s exposure to OP pesticides.
　　儿童尤其能从有机食品中受益。科学家对西雅图和华盛顿的学龄前儿童进行了监控，评估其从饮食中接触有机磷（OP）杀虫剂的情况〔197〕。常规饮食儿童的二甲基代谢物浓度约是有机饮食儿童的六倍。设计剂量估计显示，消费有机水果、蔬菜和果汁可以使儿童接触的OP从高于美国环境保护局指导方针的水平降至低于该指导方针的水平，因此，可使接触一系列不确定风险转移到可以忽略的风险。研究总结，有机产品的消费是父母减少儿童接触OP杀虫剂相对简单的一个方法。　　
　　

Healthier and more nutritious
　　更健康、更营养　　

Additionally, organic food production bans the use of artificial food additives
such as hydrogenated fats, phosphoric acid, aspartame and
monosodium glutamate, which have been linked to health problems as
diverse as heart disease, osteoporosis, migraines and hyperactivity
[193].
　　此外，有机食品生产禁止使用与诸如心脏病、骨质疏松症、偏头痛和机能亢进等健康问题有关的人工食品添加剂，如硬化油脂、磷酸、阿斯巴特和谷胺酸钠等〔193〕。　　
　　

Furthermore, while plants extract a wide range of minerals from
the soil, artificial fertilisers replace only a few principal minerals. There
is a clear long-term decline in the trace mineral content of fruit and vegetables,
and the influence of farming practices needs to be investigated
more thoroughly. The Soil Association review [193] found that on
average, organic food has higher vitamin C, higher mineral levels and
higher phytonutrients - plant compounds that can fight cancer (see
later) - than conventional food.
　　此外，植物从土壤中萃取各种矿物质，而人工饲料仅仅只能代替一些主要矿物质。水果和蔬菜中微量元素长时间以来都在明显下降，而种植方法的影响需要进行更全面的调查。土壤协会的回顾〔193〕发现，平均来看，有机食品中维生素C、矿物质和植物营养素（可以对抗癌症的植物成分，参看后文）的含量都比常规食品更高。　　
　　

Conventional produce also tends to contain more water than
organic produce, which contains more dry matter (on average, 20%
more) for a given total weight [193]. Thus, the higher cost of fresh
organic produce is partly offset by purchasers of conventional produce
paying for the extra weight of water and getting only 83% of the nutrients,
on average, available in organic produce. The higher water content
also tends to dilute nutrient content.
　　常规生产还趋向于含有比有机生产更多的水分，而后者在总重量相同的情况下含有更多的干物质（平均来说，多20％）〔193〕。因此，新鲜的有机产品成本较高部分被常规产品购买者为额外的水分支付费用，平均只得到有机产品83％的营养物质而抵销。较高的水分也使营养成分被冲淡。　　
　　

Tests with people and animals eating organic food show it makes
a real difference to health, and alternative cancer therapies have
achieved good results relying on the exclusive consumption of organic
food. The review [193] cites recent clinical evidence from doctors and
nutritionists administering alternative cancer treatments, who have
observed that a completely organic diet is essential for a successful
outcome. Nutritional cancer therapies avoid pollutants and toxins as
much as possible, and promote exclusive consumption of organically
grown foods and increases in nutrient intakes. Animal feeding trials
have also demonstrated better reproductive health, better growth, and
better recovery from illness.
　　对食用有机食品的人群和动物的测试显示，健康状态真正有所不同，依赖额外的有机食品消费使替换的癌症疗法可以达到好结果。回顾引用了医生和营养学家监控替换癌症疗法所得的最新临床证据，结果发现完全的有机饮食是获得成功结果最基本的。营养性癌症疗法可尽可能地避免污染物和毒素，促进消费额外的有机生产食品，增加营养的摄入。动物饲养试验也显示生殖健康、生长和疾病恢复都更好。　　
　　

A literature review of 41 studies and 1 240 comparisons [198]
found statistically significant differences in the nutrient content of
organic and conventional crops. This was attributed primarily to differences
in soil fertility management and its effects on soil ecology and
plant metabolism. Organic crops contained significantly more nutrients
- vitamin C, iron, magnesium and phosphorus - and significantly less
nitrates (a toxic compound) than conventional crops. There were nonsignificant
trends showing less protein in organic crops. However,
organic crops were of a better quality and had higher content of nutritionally
significant minerals, with lower amounts of some heavy metals
compared to conventional ones.
　　一份文献回顾了41项研究和1240项比较研究〔198〕后发现，有机和常规农作物中的营养成分从统计来看有很大的不同。这主要归功于土壤肥力管理的不同和其对土壤生态和植物代谢的影响。有机农作物含有的营养（维生素C、铁、镁和磷）比常规农作物多，而硝酸盐成分则要少。没有趋势显示有机农作物中的蛋白质更少。但是，与常规农作物相比，有机农作物的质量更好，营养上重要的矿物质含量更高，而一些重金属的数量则更少。　　
　　

Helping fight cancer
　　帮助对抗癌症　　

Plant phenolics (flavonoids) are plant secondary metabolites thought to
protect plants against insect predation, bacterial and fungal infection
and photo-oxidation. These plant chemicals have been found to be
effective in preventing cancer and heart disease, and to combat age-
related neurological dysfunctions. A recent scientific paper [199, 200]
compared the total phenolic (TP) content of marionberries, strawberries
and corn grown by organic and other sustainable methods with conventional
agricultural practices. Statistically higher levels of TPs were
consistently found in organically and sustainably grown foods as compared
to those produced by conventional agriculture.
　　植物酚（类黄酮）是认为可以保护植物不受昆虫掠夺、细菌和真菌感染及光氧化的第二代谢物。据发现，这些植物化学品可有效地防止癌症和心脏疾病，对抗与年龄相关的神经机能障碍。最近的一份科学论文〔199，200〕比较了通过有机和其他可持续方法种植的玛丽恩黑莓、草莓和玉米与其他常规方法种植的产品的总酚（TP ）含量，不断发现在可持续生产的食品中比常规农业生产的产品中的TP含量更高。　　
　　

An earlier study comparing antioxidant compounds in organic and
conventional peaches and pears established that an improvement in
the anti-oxidant defence system of the plants occurred as a consequence
of organic cultivation practices [201]. This is likely to exert protection
against fruit damage when grown in the absence of pesticides.
Hence organic agriculture, which eliminates the routine use of
synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilisers, could create conditions
favourable to the production of health-enhancing plant phenolics.
　　早前一项比较有机和常规桃子和梨中抗氧化剂成分的研究确认，有机培养做法使植物抗氧化剂防卫系统得到改善〔201，可在没有使用杀虫剂种植时对水果损害发挥保护作用。因此，取消日常使用合成杀虫剂和化学肥料的有机农业能为产生改善健康的植物酚创造有利条件。　　
　　

These and many other health benefits of organic foods have been
brought to the attention of the UK government [202, 203]. Among the
issues raised are the hidden costs of conventional agriculture, which
are not factored into the price. If hidden costs were taken into account,
conventionally produced food would prove more expensive than organic
food. For example, avoidance of the BSE (‘mad cow disease’) epidemic
through organic farming would have saved ￡4.5 billion. No animal
born and raised on an organic farm developed BSE in the UK.
　　有机食品的此种及其它健康好处已提请英国政府注意〔202，203〕。提出的问题中包括常规农业没有计算在价格中的隐藏成本。如果隐藏成本考虑进来，将证明常规生产的食品比有机食品更贵。比如，通过有机耕作避免BSE（疯牛病）可节约45亿英镑。在英国，在有机农场中出生和饲养的动物没有患BSE。 　　
　　

Twenty-Five

Conclusion to Part 3
　　二十五、第三部分总结

Sustainable agricultural approaches can deliver substantial increases
in food production at low cost. They can be economically, environmentally
and socially viable, and contribute positively to local livelihoods.
They are also better for health and the environment.
　　可持续农业方法能以最低的成本持续增加农业产量。可持续农业在经济、环境和社会方面都可行，可为本地生活做出积极贡献，且对健康和环境也更好。　　

Because the true root cause of hunger is inequality amongst
nations and peoples, any method of boosting food production that
deepens inequality is bound to fail to reduce hunger. Conversely, only
technologies that have positive effects on the distribution of wealth,
income and assets can truly reduce hunger [4]. Fortunately, such technologies
already exist in sustainable approaches to agriculture.
　　由于饥饿的真正原因是国家与人民之间的不平等，因此，任何以不平等为基础来提升粮食生产的方法都注定不会减少饥饿。相反，只有对财富、收入和资产分配有积极效果的技术才能真正地减少飢饿〔4〕。幸运地是，这种技术已经在农业的可持续方法中存在。　　
　　

Agroecology, sustainable agriculture and organic farming work,
not just for farmers in the developed world, but especially for farmers in
developing countries. As the FAO review [133] shows, there is a good
existing base to build and scale-up efforts for both certified and non-
certified organic agriculture. The technologies and social processes for
local improvements are increasingly well-tested and established, and
already delivering benefits in terms of increased productivity. The
examples reviewed here are only a foretaste of the myriad successful
experiences of sustainable agricultural practices at the local level. They
represent countless demonstrations of talent, creativity and scientific
capability in rural communities [132].
　　农业生态学，可持续农业和有机耕作工作不仅是为了发达世界的农民，更是为了发展中国家的农民。正如粮农组织回顾〔133〕显示的一样，现在有良好的基础为构建和提高认証和非认証有机农业而努力。提高本地技术和社会的进程正在不断被测试和确认，已经在增长生产力方面带来了好处。这里回顾的例子仅仅是可持续农业方法在本地众多成功经验的一个预示。他们代表了无数农村社区的智慧、创造力和科学能力〔132〕。　　
　　

There is thus an urgent need to concentrate effort, research, funds
and policy support on agroecology, sustainable agriculture and organic
farming, particularly strengthening production by farmers themselves
for local needs. The challenge is to scale-up and multiply the successes,
as well as to make them equitably and broadly accessible. The
model of ‘modern’ agriculture, so often in the hands of a few large corporations,
must be challenged, as must be GM crops. Existing subsidies
and policy incentives for conventional chemical and GM approaches
need to be dismantled, and brakes applied on the drain of resources
away from the alternatives [4]. We also need to guard against organic
agriculture being taken over by powerful interests, and support all kinds
of sustainable agriculture, especially that on small farms.
　　因此，需要立即集中各种动力、研究和资金并从政策上支持生态农业学、可持续农业和有机耕作，尤其要加强农民本身的生产来满足本地需求。面临的挑战是逐渐加强和使成功翻倍，同时使其能被平等、广泛地使用。“现代”农业的模式常常掌握在一些大的公司手中，必须对其质疑，尤其是转基因农作物必须受到质疑。现行针对常规化学和转基因方法的补贴和政策必须取消，而将资源耗尽的做法也应停止，选择另外的方法〔4〕。我们还需要保证有机农业不被强势者的利益取代，支持各种可持续农业，尤其是为了小农的农业。　　
　　

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31. Ho MW. Canadian farmers against corporate serfdom. Science in
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32. Kietke L. Research shows: herbicide tolerance everywhere.
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36. Saunders PT and Ho MW. The precautionary principle and scientific
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38. Ho MW. FAQs on genetic engineering. ISIS Tutorials, www.isis.
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39. Ho MW and Steinbrecher R. Fatal flaws in food safety assessment:
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Statement of the Independent Science Panel
　　独立科研小组声明　

Launched 10 May 2003, London

The Independent Science Panel (ISP) is a panel of scientists from
many disciplines, committed to the following.
　　独立科研小组（ISP）是一个由众多科学家组成的专门小组，遵守和致力于以下目标。　　

1. Promoting science for the public good, independent of
commercial and other special interests, or of government control
　　1. 推动公益科学，与商业和其他特殊利益无关，不受政府控制　　

We firmly believe that science should be accountable to civil society;
that it should be accessible to all, regardless of gender, age, race, religion
or caste; and that all sectors of civil society should participate in
making decisions on all issues related to science, from scientific
research to policies regarding science and technologies.
　　我们坚定认为，科学应对民间社会负责；所有人，不论性别、年龄、种族、信仰或社会地位都能使用；民间社会的所有部分都应参与所有与科学相关的决议制定，参与有关科学和技术的科学研究与政策。　　
　　
We believe that accurate scientific information should be promptly
accessible to the public in unbiased and uncensored forms.
　　我们相信，正确的科学信息应以无偏见、无保留的形式，主要、及时地供公众使用。　　
　　

2. Maintaining the highest standards of integrity and impartiality in science
　　2. 保持科学最高标准的完整性和公正性　　

We subscribe to the principles of honesty, openness and pluralism in
the practice of science. There should be open peer-review for published
work, and respect and protection for those whose research challenges
the conventional paradigm or majority opinion. Scientific disagreements
must be openly and democratically debated.
　　我们赞成科学行为的诚实、公开和多重性。对发布的作品应有公开回顾，并尊重和保护质疑常规范式或主流意见的研究。科学争论必须公开、民主地进行。　　

We are committed to upholding the highest standards of scientific
research, and to ensuring that research funding is not skewed or distorted
by commercial or political imperatives.
　　我们致力于坚持最高标准的科学研究，确保研究发现不会被商业或政治命令歪曲或扭曲。　　

3. Developing sciences that can help make the world sustainable,
equitable, peaceful and life-enhancing for all its inhabitants
　　3. 发展科学促进世界持续、平等与和平，提高所有居住者生活　　

We respect the sanctity of human life, seek to minimise harm to any living
creature, and protect the environment. We hold that science should
contribute to the physical, social and spiritual well-being of all in all societies.
　　我们尊重人类生命的圣洁，寻求使对任何生命体的伤害最小化的保护环境。我们坚持认为科学应为所有社会所有人的身体、社会和精神健康做贡献。　　
　　
We are committed to an ecological perspective that takes proper
account of the complexity, diversity and interdependence of all nature.
　　我们坚持正确考虑所有自然的复杂性、多样性和独立性的生态观点。　　
　　
We subscribe to the precautionary principle: when there is reasonable
suspicion of serious or irreversible damage, lack of scientific
consensus must not be used to postpone preventative action.
　　我们赞成预防原则：如合理怀疑存在严重或不可改变的损害时，缺乏科学共识也不能做为推迟预防行动的依据。　　
　　
We reject scientific endeavours that serve aggressive military
ends, promote commercial imperialism or damage social justice.
　　我们反对用于侵略性军事用途、推动商业帝国主义或损害社会公正的科学研究。　　
　　

The Genetic Modification Group of the ISP
　　转基因ISP小组　
　
The Genetic Modification (GM) Group of the ISP consists of scientists
working in genetics, biosciences, toxicology and medicine, and other
representatives of civil society who are concerned about the harmful
consequences of genetic modifications of plants and animals and related
technologies and their rapid commercialisation in agriculture and
medicine without due process of proper scientific assessment and of
public consultation and consent.
转基因ISP小组由基因、生物科学、毒物学和药物学科学家及其它民间团体的代表组成，他们关心基因改造动植物及相关技术的有害后果及其在没有适当的科学评估进程和公众协商与共识的情况下在农业和药物中的快速商业化。

We find the following aspects especially regrettable and unacceptable:
我们认为以下方面尤其遗憾和不可接受：

. Lack of critical public information on the science and technology
of GM
缺乏有关转基因科学与技术的重要公众信息

. Lack of public accountability in the GM science community
转基因科学界缺乏对公众负责　

. Lack of independent, disinterested scientific research into, and
assessment of, the hazards of GM
缺乏对转基因危害独立、无私的科学研究和评估

. Partisan attitude of regulatory and other public information
bodies, which appear more intent on spreading corporate
propaganda than providing crucial information
规范机构及其它公共作息结构的偏袒态度似乎更倾向于传播公司的宣传而不是提供至关紧要的信息　　

. Pervasive commercial and political conflicts of interests in both
research and development and regulation of GM
转基因的研究与开发和转基因的规范有广泛的商业、政治利益冲突

.Suppression and vilification of scientists who try to convey
research information to the public that is deemed to harm the
industry
压制和中伤那些试图向公众传达会损害该产业信息的科学家

. Persistent denial and dismissal of extensive scientific evidence
on the hazards of GM to health and the environment by
proponents of genetic modification and by supposedly
disinterested advisory and regulatory bodies
面对广泛的证据说明转基因在现场和实验室失败的情况下，仍持续通过生物技术公司来声称转基因的好处，并通过科学确认来复制这些声称　

.  Continuing claims of GM benefits by the biotech corporations,
and repetitions of these claims by the scientific establishment, in
the face of extensive evidence that GM has failed both in the
field and in the laboratory.
持续通过支持基因改造及无私咨询和规范机构的推测来否认和驳回转基因对健康和环境危害的广泛科学证据

. Reluctance to recognize that the corporate funding of academic
research in GM is already in decline, and that the biotechnology
multinationals (and their shareholders) as well as investment
consultants are now questioning the wisdom of the ‘GM
enterprise’
不愿认可公司对转基因学术研究的资助已经在减少，生物技术跨国公司（及其股东）和投资顾问现在都对“转基因企业”的智慧表示质疑　　

. Attacks on, and summary dismissal of, extensive evidence
pointing to the benefits of various sustainable agricultural
approaches for health and the environment, as well as for food
security and social well-being of farmers and their local
communities.
各种可持续农业方法为健康和环境及农民及其本地社区的粮食安全和社会健康带来好处的广泛证据遭到攻击，并即决驳回。　

Independent Science Panel on GM
List of Members
转基因独立科研小组成员名单

Prof. Miguel Altieri

Professor of Agroecology, University of California, Berkeley, USA

Dr. Michael Antoniou

Senior Lecturer in Molecular Genetics, GKT School of Medicine,
King’s College, London

Dr. Susan Bardocz

Biochemist; formerly Rowett Research Institute, Scotland

Prof. David Bellamy OBE

Internationally renowned botanist, environmentalist, broadcaster,
author and campaigner; recipient of numerous awards; President and
Vice President of many conservation and environmental organizations

Dr. Elizabeth Bravo V.

Biologist, researcher and campaigner on biodiversity and GMO
issues; co-founder of Acción Ecológica; part-time lecturer at
Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Ecuador

Prof. Joe Cummins

Professor Emeritus of Genetics, University of Western Ontario,
London, Ontario, Canada

Dr. Stanley Ewen

Consultant Histopathologist at Grampian University Hospitals Trust;
formerly Senior Lecturer in Pathology, University of Aberdeen; lead
histopathologist for the Grampian arm of the Scottish Colorectal
Cancer Screening Pilot Project

Edward Goldsmith

Recipient of the Right Livelihood and numerous awards, environmentalist,
scholar, author and Founding Editor of The Ecologist

Dr. Brian Goodwin

Scholar in Residence, Schumacher College, England

Dr. Mae-Wan Ho (何美芸,又翻译为“侯美婉”)

Co-founder and Director of the Institute of Science in Society; Editor
of the magazine Science in Society; Science Advisor to the Third
World Network and on the Roster of Experts for the Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety

Prof. Malcolm Hooper

Emeritus Professor at the University of Sunderland; previously,
Professor of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Sunderland Polytechnic; Chief Scientific Advisor to the Gulf
War Veterans

Dr. Vyvyan Howard

Medically qualified toxico-pathologist, Developmental Toxico-
Pathology Group, Department of Human Anatomy and Cell Biology,
The University of Liverpool; member of the UK Government’s
Advisory Committee on Pesticides

Dr. Brian John

Geomorphologist and environmental scientist; Founder and long-time
Chairman of the West Wales Eco Centre; one of the coordinating
group of GM Free Cymru

Prof. Marijan Jo.t

Professor of Plant Breeding and Seed Production, Agricultural College
Krizevci, Croatia

Lim Li Ching （林丽珍）

Researcher, Institute of Science in Society and Third World Network;
deputy-editor of Science in Society magazine

Dr. Eva Novotny

Astronomer and campaigner on GM issues for Scientists for Global
Responsibility, SGR

Prof. Bob Orskov OBE

Formerly Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland; Director,
International Feed Resources Unit; Fellow of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, FRSE; Fellow of the Polish Academy of Science

Dr. Michel Pimbert

Agricultural ecologist and Principal Associate, International Institute
for Environment and Development

Dr. Arpad Pusztai （普兹泰）

Private consultant; formerly Senior Research Fellow at the Rowett
Research Institute, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, Scotland

David Quist

Microbial ecologist, Ecosystem Sciences Division, Environmental
Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley,
USA

Dr. Peter Rosset

Agricultural ecologist and rural development specialist; Co-director of
the Institute for Food and Development Policy (Food First), Oakland,
California, USA

Prof. Peter Saunders

Professor of Applied Mathematics at King's College, London

Dr. Veljko Veljkovic

AIDS virologist, Center for Multidisciplinary Research and
Engineering, Institute of Nuclear Sciences VINCA, Belgrade,
Yugoslavia

Prof. Oscar B. Zamora

Professor of Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, University of the
Philippines Los Banos-College of Agriculture (UPLB-CA), College,
Laguna, The Philippines

Independent Science Panel website: www.indsp.org

The Independent Science Panel (ISP) on GM - launched 10 May 2003 at a
public conference in London attended by the then UK environment
minister Michael Meacher and 200 other participants - consists of dozens
of prominent scientists from seven countries, spanning the disciplines of
agroecology, agronomy, biomathematics, botany, chemical medicine,
ecology, histopathology, microbial ecology, molecular genetics,
nutritional biochemistry, physiology, toxicology and virology.

As their contribution to the global GM debate, the ISP has compiled this
complete dossier of evidence on the known problems and hazards of
GM crops as well as on the manifold benefits of sustainable agriculture.

Read it to make the right choice for the future of
agriculture and food security

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